56. Paul Baran interview, in James Pelkey, “Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation,” http://www.historyofcomputercommunications.info/Book/2/2.4-Paul%20Baran-59-65.html#_ftn9.

57. Paul Baran oral history, “How the Web Was Won,” Vanity Fair, July 2008; interview with Paul Baran, by Stewart Brand, Wired, Mar. 2001; Paul Baran oral history, conducted by David Hochfelder, Oct. 24, 1999, IEEE History Center; Clayton Christensen, The Innovator’s Dilemma (Harper, 1997).

58. Donald Davies, “A Historical Study of the Beginnings of Packet Switching,” Computer Journal, British Computer Society, 2001; Abbate, Inventing the Internet, 558; author’s interview with Larry Roberts; Trevor Harris, “Who Is the Father of the Internet? The Case for Donald Davies,” http://www.academia.edu.

59. Author’s interview with Leonard Kleinrock; Leonard Kleinrock oral history, conducted by John Vardalas, IEEE History Center, Feb. 21, 2004.

60. Author’s interview with Leonard Kleinrock.

61. Kleinrock oral history, IEEE.

62. Segaller, Nerds, 34.

63. Author’s interviews with Kleinrock, Roberts; see also Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 1009; Segaller, Nerds, 53.

64. Leonard Kleinrock, “Information Flow in Large Communications Nets,” proposal for a PhD thesis, MIT, May 31, 1961. See also Leonard Kleinrock, Communication Nets: Stochastic Message Flow and Design (McGraw-Hill, 1964).

65. Leonard Kleinrock personal website, http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/index.html.

66. Leonard Kleinrock, “Memoirs of the Sixties,” in Peter Salus, The ARPANET Sourcebook (Peer-to-Peer, 2008), 96.

67. Leonard Kleinrock interview, Computing Now, IEEE Computer Society, 1996. Kleinrock is quoted in Peter Salus, Casting the Net (Addison-Wesley, 1995), 52: “I was the first to discuss the performance gains to be had by packet switching.”

68. Author’s interview with Taylor.

69. Author’s interview with Kleinrock.

70. Donald Davies, “A Historical Study of the Beginnings of Packet Switching,” Computer Journal, British Computer Society, 2001.

71. Alex McKenzie, “Comments on Dr. Leonard Kleinrock’s Claim to Be ‘the Father of Modern Data Networking,’ ” Aug. 16, 2009, http://alexmckenzie.weebly.com/comments-on-kleinrocks-claims.html.

72. Katie Hafner, “A Paternity Dispute Divides Net Pioneers,” New York Times, Nov. 8, 2001; Les Earnest, “Birthing the Internet,” New York Times, Nov. 22, 2001. Earnest minimizes the distinction between a “store and forward” system and a “packet switch” one.

73. Leonard Kleinrock, “Principles and Lessons in Packet Communications,” Proceedings of the IEEE, Nov. 1978.

74. Kleinrock oral history, Charles Babbage Institute, Apr. 3, 1990.

75. Leonard Kleinrock, “On Resource Sharing in a Distributed Communication Environment,” IEEE Communications Magazine, May 2002. One loyalist did support Kleinrock’s claims: his longtime friend, casino mate, and colleague Larry Roberts. “If you read Len’s 1964 book, it’s clear that he’s breaking files into message units,” Roberts told me in 2014. However, like Kleinrock, Roberts had previously given primary credit for packet switching to Baran. Roberts wrote in 1978, “The first published description of what we now call packet switching was an 11-volume analysis, On Distributed Communications, prepared by Paul Baran of the RAND Corporation in August 1964.” See Lawrence Roberts, “The Evolution of Packet Switching,” Proceedings of the IEEE, Nov. 1978.

76. Paul Baran oral history, “How the Web Was Won,” Vanity Fair, July 2008.

77. Paul Baran interview, by Stewart Brand, Wired, Mar. 2001.

78. Paul Baran, “Introduction to Distributed Communications Networks,” RAND, 1964, http://www.rand.org/pubs/research_memoranda/RM3420/RM3420-chapter1.html.

79. Segaller, Nerds, 70.

80. Author’s interview with Bob Taylor. I was an editor of Time and remember the dispute.

81. Mitchell Waldrop, The Dream Machine (Viking, 2001), 279.

82. Stephen Lukasik, “Why the ARPANET Was Built,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Mar. 2011; Stephen Lukasik oral history, conducted by Judy O’Neill, Charles Babbage Institute, Oct. 17, 1991.

83. Charles Herzfeld, “On ARPANET and Computers,” undated, http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bl_Charles_Herzfeld.htm.

84. “A Brief History of the Internet,” Internet Society, Oct. 15, 2012, http://www.internetsociety.org/internet/what-internet/history-internet/brief-history-internet.

85. “NSFNET: A Partnership for High-Speed Networking: Final Report,” 1995, http://www.merit.edu/documents/pdf/nsfnet/nsfnet_report.pdf.

86. Author’s interview with Steve Crocker.

87. Author’s interview with Leonard Kleinrock.

88. Author’s interview with Robert Taylor.

89. Author’s interview with Vint Cerf; Radia Joy Perlman, “Network Layer Protocols with Byzantine Robustness,” PhD dissertation, MIT, 1988, http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/14403.

90. Abbate, Inventing the Internet, 180.

91. Author’s interview with Taylor.

92. Larry Roberts interview, conducted by James Pelkey, http://www.historyofcomputercommunications.info/Book/2/2.9-BoltBeranekNewman-WinningBid-68%20.html#_ftn26.

93. Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 1506 and passim.

94. Pelkey, “A History of Computer Communications,” http://www.historyofcomputercommunications.info/index.html, 2.9; Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 1528.

95. The tale of Steve Crocker’s RFCs has been told in many variations. This account comes from my interviews with Steve Crocker, Vint Cerf, Leonard Kleinrock; Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 2192 and passim; Abbate, Inventing the Internet, 1330 and passim; Stephen Crocker oral history, conducted by Judy E. O’Neill, Oct. 24, 1991, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota; Stephen Crocker, “How the Internet Got Its Rules,” New York Times, Apr. 6, 2009; Cade Metz, “Meet the Man Who Invented the Instructions for the Internet,” Wired, May 18, 2012; Steve Crocker, “The Origins of RFCs,” in “The Request for Comments Guide,” RFC 1000, Aug. 1987, http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc1000.txt; Steve Crocker, “The First Pebble: Publication of RFC 1,” RFC 2555, Apr. 7, 1999.

96. Author’s interview with Steve Crocker.

97. Crocker, “How the Internet Got Its Rules.”

98. Stephen Crocker, “Host Software,” RFC 1, Apr. 7, 1969, http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1.

99. Crocker, “How the Internet Got Its Rules.”

100. Vint Cerf, “The Great Conversation,” RFC 2555, Apr. 7, 1999, http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc2555.txt.

101. “The IMP Log: October 1969 to April 1970,” Kleinrock Center for Internet Studies, UCLA, http://internethistory.ucla.edu/the-imp-log-october-1969-to-april-1970/; Segaller, Nerds, 92; Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 2336.

102. Vint Cerf oral history, conducted by Daniel Morrow, Nov. 21, 2001, Computerworld Honors Program; Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 2070 and passim; Abbate, Inventing the Internet, 127 and passim.

103. Cerf oral history, Computerworld.

104. Robert Kahn oral history, conducted by Michael Geselowitz, Feb. 17, 2004, IEEE History Center.

105. Vint Cerf oral history, conducted by Judy O’Neill, Apr. 24, 1990, Charles Babbage Institute; Vint Cerf, “How the Internet Came to Be,” Nov. 1993, http://www.netvalley.com/archives/mirrors/cerf-how-inet.html.

106. Robert Kahn oral history, conducted by David Allison, Apr. 20, 1995, Computerworld Honors Program.

107. “The Poems,” RFC 1121, Sept. 1989.

108. Author’s interview with Vint Cerf.

109. Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 1163.