120. Author’s interview with Richard Stallman.

121. Richard Stallman, “The GNU Project,” http://www.gnu.org/gnu/thegnuproject.html.

122. Williams, Free as in Freedom, 75.

123. Richard Stallman, “The GNU Manifesto,” http://www.gnu.org/gnu/manifesto.html.

124. Richard Stallman, “What Is Free Software?” and “Why Open Source Misses the Point of Free Software,” https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/.

125. Richard Stallman, “The GNU System,” https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/.

126. Interview with Richard Stallman, conducted by David Betz and Jon Edwards, BYTE, July 1986.

127. “Linus Torvalds,” Linux Information Project, http://www.linfo.org/linus.html.

128. Linus Torvalds with David Diamond, Just for Fun (HarperCollins, 2001), 4.

129. Torvalds and Diamond, Just for Fun, 74, 4, 17; Michael Learmonth, “Giving It All Away,” San Jose Metro, May 8, 1997.

130. Torvalds and Diamond, Just for Fun, 52, 55, 64, 78, 72.

131. Linus Torvalds pronouncing “Linux”: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Linus-linux.ogg.

132. Learmonth, “Giving It All Away.”

133. Torvalds and Diamond, Just for Fun, 58.

134. Linus Torvalds, “Free Minix-like Kernel Sources for 386-AT,” posting to Newsgroups: comp.os.minix, Oct. 5, 1991, http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~awb/linux.history.html.

135. Torvalds and Diamond, Just for Fun, 87, 93, 97, 119.

136. Gary Rivlin, “Leader of the Free World,” Wired, November 2003.

137. Yochai Benkler, The Penguin and the Leviathan: How Cooperation Triumphs over Self-Interest (Crown, 2011); Yochai Benkler, “Coase’s Penguin, or, Linux and the Nature of the Firm,” Yale Law Journal (2002), http://soc.ics.uci.edu/Resources/bibs.php?793.

138. Eric Raymond, The Cathedral and the Bazaar (O’Reilly Media, 1999), 30.

139. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (originally published 1835–40; Packard edition), Kindle location 3041.

140. Torvalds and Diamond, Just for Fun, 122, 167, 120, 121.

141. Richard Stallman interview, Reddit, July 29, 2010, http://www.redditblog.com/2010/07/rms-ama.html.

142. Richard Stallman, “What’s in a Name?” https://www.gnu.org/gnu/why-gnu-linux.html.

143. Torvalds and Diamond, Just for Fun, 164.

144. Linus Torvalds blog post, “Black and White,” Nov. 2, 2008, http://torvalds-family.blogspot.com/2008/11/black-and-white.html.

145. Torvalds and Diamond, Just for Fun, 163.

146. Raymond, The Cathedral and the Bazaar, 1.

CHAPTER TEN: ONLINE

1. Lawrence Landweber email to the author, Feb. 5, 2014.

2. Ray Tomlinson, “The First Network Email,” http://openmap.bbn.com/~tomlinso/ray/firstemailframe.html.

3. Larry Brilliant email to the author, Feb. 14, 2014.

4. Larry Brilliant interview, Wired, Dec. 20, 2007.

5. Larry Brilliant interview, Wired, Dec. 20, 2007.

6. Katie Hafner, The Well (Carroll & Graf, 2001), 10.

7. Hafner, The Well, 30; Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture, 145.

8. Howard Rheingold, The Virtual Community (Perseus, 1993), 9.

9. Tom Mandel, “Confessions of a Cyberholic,” Time, Mar. 1, 1995. At that point, Mandel knew he was dying, and he asked his editors at Time—Phil Elmer-DeWitt, Dick Duncan, and myself—if he could write a farewell reflection about the online world.

10. Tom Mandel, posting on The WELL, http://www.well.com/~cynsa/tom/tom13.html. See also “To Our Readers” [signed by the publisher Elizabeth Long but written by Phil Elmer-DeWitt], Time, Apr. 17, 1995.

11. This section draws from interviews with Steve Case, Jim Kimsey, and Jean Case; Julius Duscha, “For Computers, a Marrying Sam,” New York Times, Dec. 25, 1977; Michael Banks, On the Way to the Web (APress, 2008, locations refer to the Kindle edition); Kara Swisher, AOL.com (Random House, 1998); Alec Klein, Stealing Time (Simon & Schuster, 2003). Steve Case, a longtime friend and colleague, provided comments and corrections on an early draft.

12. Klein, Stealing Time, 11.

13. Banks, On the Way to the Web, 792, 743.

14. Banks, On the Way to the Web, 602, 1467.

15. Author’s interview with Steve Case; Banks, On the Way to the Web, 1503; Swisher, AOL.com, 27.

16. Steve Case talk, JP Morgan Technology Conference, San Francisco, May 1, 2001.

17. Nina Munk, Fools Rush In (Collins, 2004), 73.

18. Author’s interview with Steve Case.

19. Swisher, AOL.com, 25.

20. Steve Case speech, Stanford, May 25, 2010.

21. Steve Case speech, Stanford, May 25, 2010.

22. Author’s interview with Steve Case.

23. Steve Case speech, Stanford, May 25, 2010.

24. Swisher, AOL.com, 27.

25. Author’s interview with Steve Case.

26. Author’s interview with Steve Case; Case email to author and comments on first draft published on Medium. Accounts differ on whether or not von Meister was eager to hire Steve Case or whether Dan Case pushed him to do it. Swisher, AOL.com, 28, says it was the former. Banks, On the Way to the Web, 1507, says it was the latter. There are probably elements of truth in both versions.

27. Author’s interview with Jim Kimsey.

28. Swisher, AOL.com, 53.

29. Swisher, AOL.com, 48.

30. Author’s interviews with Steve Case, Steve Wozniak.

31. Steve Case speech, Stanford, May 25, 2010.

32. Author’s interview with Steve Case.

33. Author’s interview with Steve Case.

34. Steve Case oral history, conducted by Walter Isaacson, 2013, the Riptide Project, Harvard, http://www.niemanlab.org/riptide/person/steve-case/. I participated in this oral history project on the digital disruption of journalism, which was curated by John Huey, Paul Sagan, and Martin Nisenholtz.

35. Steve Case oral history, “How the Web Was Won,” Vanity Fair, July 2008.

36. Author’s interview with Jim Kimsey.

37. Steve Case speech, Stanford, May 25, 2010.

38. Dave Fischer post, newsgroup: alt.folklore.computers, Jan. 25, 1994, https://groups.google.com/forum/#!original/alt.folklore.computers/wF4CpYbWuuA/jS6ZOyJd10sJ.

39. Wendy Grossman, Net.Wars (NYU, 1977), 33.

40. Author’s interview with Al Gore.

41. Al Gore interview with Wolf Blitzer, “Late Edition,” CNN, Mar. 9, 1999, http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/stories/1999/03/09/president.2000/transcript.gore/.

42. Robert Kahn and Vinton Cerf, “Al Gore and the Internet,” an email to Declan McCullaugh and others, Sept. 28, 2000, http://www.politechbot.com/p-01394.html.

43. Newt Gingrich, speech to the American Political Science Association, Sept. 1, 2000.

CHAPTER ELEVEN: THE WEB

1. Tim Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web (HarperCollins, 1999), 4. See also Mark Fischetti, “The Mind Behind the Web,” Scientific American, Mar. 12, 2009.

2. Author’s interview with Tim Berners-Lee.

3. Author’s interview with Tim Berners-Lee.

4. Author’s interview with Tim Berners-Lee.

5. Author’s interview with Tim Berners-Lee.

6. Tim Berners-Lee interview, Academy of Achievement, June 22, 2007.

7. Author’s interview with Tim Berners-Lee.

8. Author’s interview with Tim Berners-Lee.

9. Enquire Within Upon Everything (1894), http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10766/10766-h/10766-h.htm.

10. Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web, 1.

11. Author’s interview with Tim Berners-Lee.

12. Tim Berners-Lee interview, Academy of Achievement, June 22, 2007.

13. Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web, 10.

14. Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web, 4.

15. Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web, 14.

16. Author’s interview with Tim Berners-Lee.