7. John Searle, “Watson Doesn’t Know It Won on Jeopardy,” Wall Street Journal, Feb. 23, 2011.

8. John E. Kelly III and Steve Hamm, Smart Machines (Columbia, 2013), 4. Steve Hamm is a technology journalist now working as a writer and communications strategist at IBM. I have attributed the opinions in the book to Kelly, who is the director of IBM research.

9. Larry Hardesty, “Artificial-Intelligence Research Revives Its Old Ambitions,” MIT News, Sept. 9, 2013.

10. James Somers, “The Man Who Would Teach Computers to Think,” Atlantic, Nov. 2013.

11. Gary Marcus, “Why Can’t My Computer Understand Me,” New Yorker, Aug. 16, 2013.

12. Steven Pinker, The Language Instinct (Harper, 1994), 191.

13. Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig, Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (Prentice Hall, 1995), 566.

14. Author’s interview with Bill Gates.

15. Nicholas Wade, “In Tiny Worm, Unlocking Secrets of the Brain,” New York Times, June 20, 2011; “The Connectome of a Decision-Making Neural Network,” Science, July 27, 2012; The Dana Foundation, https://www.dana.org/News/Details.aspx?id=43512.

16. John Markoff, “Brainlike Computers, Learning from Experience,” New York Times, Dec. 28, 2013. Markoff, who has long done thoughtful reporting on this field, is writing a book that explores the implications of machines that can replace human labor.

17. “Neuromorphic Computing Platform,” the Human Brain Project, https://www.humanbrainproject.eu/neuromorphic-computing-platform1; Bennie Mols, “Brainy Computer Chip Ditches Digital for Analog,” Communications of the ACM, Feb. 27, 2014; Klint Finley, “Computer Chips That Work Like a Brain Are Coming—Just Not Yet,” Wired, Dec. 31, 2013. Beau Cronin of O’Reilly Media has proposed a drinking game: “take a shot every time you find a news article or blog post that describes a new AI system as working or thinking ‘like the brain’ ” (http://radar.oreilly.com/2014/05/it-works-like-the-brain-so.html), and he maintains a pinboard of stories making such claims (https://pinboard.in/u:beaucronin/t:like-the-brain/#).

18. Author’s interview with Tim Berners-Lee.

19. Vernor Vinge, “The Coming Technological Singularity,” Whole Earth Review, Winter 1993. See also Ray Kurzweil, “Accelerating Intelligence,” http://www.kurzweilai.net/.

20. J. C. R. Licklider, “Man-Computer Symbiosis,” IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics, Mar. 1960.

21. Kelly and Hamm, Smart Machines, 7.

22. Kasparov, “The Chess Master and the Computer.”

23. Kelly and Hamm, Smart Machines, 2.

24. “Why Cognitive Systems?” IBM Research website, http://www.research.ibm.com/cognitive-computing/why-cognitive-systems.shtml.

25. Author’s interview with David McQueeney.

26. Author’s interview with Ginni Rometty.

27. Author’s interview with Ginni Rometty.

28. Kelly and Hamm, Smart Machines, 3.

29. “Accelerating the Co-Evolution,” Doug Engelbart Institute, http://www.dougengelbart.org/about/co-evolution.html; Thierry Bardini, Bootstrapping: Douglas Engelbart, Coevolution, and the Origins of Personal Computing (Stanford, 2000).

30. Nick Bilton, Hatching Twitter (Portfolio, 2013), 203.

31. Usually misattributed to Thomas Edison, although there is no evidence he ever said it. Often used by Steve Case.

32. Yochai Benkler, “Coase’s Penguin, or, Linux and the Nature of the Firm,” Yale Law Journal (2002).

33. Steven Johnson, “The Internet? We Built That,” New York Times, Sept. 21, 2012.

34. Author’s interview with Larry Page. The quote form Steve Jobs comes from an interview I did with him for my previous book.

35. Kelly and Hamm, Smart Machines, 7.

PHOTO CREDITS

Lovelace: Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Lord Byron: © The Print Collector/Corbis

Babbage: Popperfoto/Getty Images

Difference Engine: Allan J. Cronin

Analytical Engine: Science Photo Library/Getty Images

Jacquard loom: David Monniaux

Jacquard portrait: © Corbis

Bush: © Bettmann/Corbis

Turing: Wikimedia Commons/Original at the Archives Centre, King’s College, Cambridge

Shannon: Alfred Eisenstaedt/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images

Stibitz: Denison University, Department of Math and Computer Science

Zuse: Courtesy of Horst Zuse

Atanasoff: Special Collections Department/Iowa State University

Atanasoff-Berry Computer: Special Collections Department/Iowa State University

Aiken: Harvard University Archives, UAV 362.7295.8p, B 1, F 11, S 109

Mauchly: Apic/Contributor/Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Eckert: © Bettmann/Corbis

ENIAC in 1946: University of Pennsylvania Archives

Aiken and Hopper: By a staff photographer / © 1946 The Christian Science Monitor (www.CSMonitor.com). Reprinted with permission. Also courtesy of the Grace Murray Hopper Collection, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.

Jennings and Bilas with ENIAC: U.S. Army photo

Jennings: Copyright © Jean Jennings Bartik Computing Museum—Northwest Missouri State University. All rights reserved. Used with permission.

Snyder: Copyright © Jean Jennings Bartik Computing Museum—Northwest Missouri State University. All rights reserved. Used with permission.

Von Neumann: © Bettmann/Corbis

Goldstine: Courtesy of the Computer History Museum

Eckert and Cronkite with UNIVAC: U.S. Census Bureau

Bardeen, Shockley, Brattain: Lucent Technologies/Agence France-Presse/Newscom

First transistor: Reprinted with permission of Alcatel-Lucent USA Inc.

Shockley Nobel toast: Courtesy of Bo Lojek and the Computer History Museum

Noyce: © Wayne Miller/Magnum Photos

Moore: Intel Corporation

Fairchild Semiconductor: © Wayne Miller/Magnum Photos

Kilby: Fritz Goro/ The LIFE Picture Collection/ Getty Images

Kilby’s microchip: Image courtesy of Texas Instruments

Rock: Louis Fabian Bachrach

Grove, Noyce, Moore: Intel Corporation

Spacewar: Courtesy of the Computer History Museum

Bushnell: © Ed Kashi/VII/Corbis

Licklider: Karen Tweedy-Holmes

Taylor: Courtesy of Bob Taylor

Larry Roberts: Courtesy of Larry Roberts

Davies: National Physical Laboratory © Crown Copyright / Science Source Images

Baran: Courtesy of RAND Corp.

Kleinrock: Courtesy of Len Kleinrock

Cerf and Kahn: © Louie Psihoyos/Corbis

Kesey: © Joe Rosenthal/San Francisco Chronicle/Corbis

Brand: © Bill Young/San Francisco Chronicle/Corbis

Whole Earth Catalog cover: Whole Earth Catalog

Engelbart: SRI International

First mouse: SRI International

Brand: SRI International

Kay: Courtesy of the Computer History Museum

Dynabook: Courtesy of Alan Kay

Felsenstein: Cindy Charles

People’s Computer Company cover: DigiBarn Computer Museum

Ed Roberts: Courtesy of the Computer History Museum

 Popular Electronics cover: DigiBarn Computer Museum

Allen and Gates: Bruce Burgess, courtesy of Lakeside School, Bill Gates, Paul Allen, and Fredrica Rice

Gates: Wikimedia Commons/Albuquerque, NM police department

Microsoft team: Courtesy of the Microsoft Archives