99. Kovitz, “The Conversation at the Taco Stand.”
100. Larry Sanger, “Let’s Make a Wiki,” Nupedia message thread, Jan. 10, 2001, http://archive.is/yovNt.
101. Lih, The Wikipedia Revolution, 1422.
102. Clay Shirky, “Wikipedia—An Unplanned Miracle,” Guardian, Jan. 14, 2011; see also Clay Shirky, Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing without Organizations (Penguin, 2008) and Cognitive Surplus: Creativity and Generosity in a Connected Age (Penguin, 2010).
103. Author’s interview with Jimmy Wales.
104. Larry Sanger, “Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism,” Dec. 31, 2004, www.LarrySanger.org.
105. Wikipedia press release, Jan. 15, 2002, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Press_releases/January_2002.
106. Author’s interview with Jimmy Wales.
107. Shirky, “Wikipedia—An Unplanned Miracle.”
108. Yochai Benkler, “Coase’s Penguin, or, Linux and the Nature of the Firm,” Yale Law Journal (2002), http://soc.ics.uci.edu/Resources/bibs.php?793; Yochai Benkler, The Penguin and the Leviathan: How Cooperation Triumphs over Self-Interest (Crown, 2011).
109. Daniel Pink, “The Buck Stops Here,” Wired, Mar. 2005; Tim Adams, “For Your Information,” Guardian, June 30, 2007; Lord Emsworth user page, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Lord_Emsworth; Peter Steiner, New Yorker cartoon, July 5, 1993, at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Internet,_nobody_knows_you’re_a_dog.
110. Jonathan Zittrain, The Future of the Internet and How to Stop It (Yale, 2008), 147.
111. Author’s interview with Jimmy Wales.
112. Author’s interview with Jimmy Wales.
113. John Battelle, The Search (Portfolio, 2005; locations refer to the Kindle edition), 894.
114. Battelle, The Search, 945; author’s visit with Srinija Srinivasan.
115. In addition to the sources cited below, this section is based on my interview and conversations with Larry Page; Larry Page commencement address at the University of Michigan, May 2, 2009; Larry Page and Sergey Brin interviews, Academy of Achievement, Oct. 28, 2000; “The Lost Google Tapes,” interviews by John Ince with Sergey Brin, Larry Page, and others, Jan. 2000, http://www.podtech.net/home/?s=Lost+Google+Tapes; John Ince, “Google Flashback—My 2000 Interviews,” Huffington Post, Feb. 6, 2012; Ken Auletta, Googled (Penguin, 2009); Battelle, The Search; Richard Brandt, The Google Guys (Penguin, 2011); Steven Levy, In the Plex (Simon & Schuster, 2011); Randall Stross, Planet Google (Free Press, 2008); David Vise, The Google Story (Delacorte, 2005); Douglas Edwards, I’m Feeling Lucky: The Confessions of Google Employee Number 59 (Mariner, 2012); Brenna McBride, “The Ultimate Search,” College Park magazine, Spring 2000; Mark Malseed, “The Story of Sergey Brin,” Moment magazine, Feb. 2007.
116. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
117. Larry Page interview, Academy of Achievement.
118. Larry Page interview, by Andy Serwer, Fortune, May 1, 2008.
119. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
120. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
121. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
122. Larry Page, Michigan commencement address.
123. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
124. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
125. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
126. Battelle, The Search, 1031.
127. Auletta, Googled, 28.
128. Interview with Larry Page and Sergey Brin, conducted by Barbara Walters, ABC News, Dec. 8, 2004.
129. Sergey Brin talk, Breakthrough Learning conference, Google headquarters, Nov. 12, 2009.
130. Malseed, “The Story of Sergey Brin.”
131. Sergey Brin interview, Academy of Achievement.
132. McBride, “The Ultimate Search.”
133. Auletta, Googled, 31.
134. Auletta, Googled, 32.
135. Vise, The Google Story, 33.
136. Auletta, Googled, 39.
137. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
138. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
139. Terry Winograd interview, conducted by Bill Moggridge, http://www.designinginteractions.com/interviews/TerryWinograd.
140. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
141. Craig Silverstein, Sergey Brin, Rajeev Motwani, and Jeff Ullman, “Scalable Techniques for Mining Causal Structures,” Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, July 2000.
142. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
143. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
144. Larry Page, Michigan commencement address.
145. Vise, The Google Story, 10.
146. Larry Page, Michigan commencement address.
147. Battelle, The Search, 1183.
148. Battelle, The Search, 1114.
149. Larry Page, Michigan commencement address.
150. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
151. Levy, In the Plex, 415, citing Page’s remarks at the 2001 PC Forum, held in Scottsdale, Arizona.
152. Sergey Brin interview, conducted by John Ince, “The Lost Google Tapes,” part 2.
153. Sergey Brin, Rajeev Motwani, Larry Page, Terry Winograd, “What Can You Do with a Web in Your Pocket?” Bulletin of the IEEE Computer Society Technical Committee on Data Engineering, 1998.
154. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
155. Levy, In the Plex, 358.
156. Levy, In the Plex, 430.
157. Sergey Brin interview, conducted by John Ince, “The Lost Google Tapes,” part 2, http://www.podtech.net/home/1728/podventurezone-lost-google-tapes-part-2-sergey-brin.
158. Levy, In the Plex, 947.
159. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
160. Sergey Brin and Larry Page, “The Anatomy of a Large-Scale Hypertextual Web Search Engine,” seventh International World-Wide Web Conference, Apr. 1998, Brisbane, Australia.
161. Vise, The Google Story, 30.
162. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
163. David Cheriton, Mike Moritz, and Sergey Brin interviews, conducted by John Ince, “The Lost Google Tapes”; Vise, The Google Story, 47; Levy, In the Plex, 547.
164. Vise, The Google Story, 47; Battelle, The Search, 86.
165. Sergey Brin interview, conducted by John Ince, “The Lost Google Tapes.”
166. Larry Page interview, conducted by John Ince, “The Lost Google Tapes.”
167. Auletta, Googled, 44.
168. Sergey Brin interview, conducted by John Ince, “The Lost Google Tapes,” part 2.
CHAPTER TWELVE: ADA FOREVER
1. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 6321; John von Neumann, The Computer and the Brain (Yale, 1958), 80.
2. Gary Marcus, “Hyping Artificial Intelligence, Yet Again,” New Yorker, Jan. 1, 2014, citing “New Navy Device Learns by Doing” (UPI wire story), New York Times, July 8, 1958; “Rival,” New Yorker, Dec. 6, 1958.
3. Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert, the original gurus of artificial intelligence, challenged some of Rosenblatt’s premises, after which the excitement surrounding the Perceptron faded and the entire field entered a decline known as the “AI winter.” See Danny Wilson, “Tantalizingly Close to a Mechanized Mind: The Perceptrons Controversy and the Pursuit of Artificial Intelligence,” undergraduate thesis, Harvard, December 2012; Frank Rosenblatt, “The Perceptron: A Probabilistic Model for Information Storage and Organization in the Brain,” Psychological Review, Fall 1958; Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert, Perceptrons (MIT, 1969).
4. Author’s interview with Ginni Rometty.
5. Garry Kasparov, “The Chess Master and the Computer,” New York Review of Books, Feb. 11, 2010; Clive Thompson, Smarter Than You Think (Penguin, 2013), 3.
6. “Watson on Jeopardy,” IBM’s Smarter Planet website, Feb. 14, 2011, http://asmarterplanet.com/blog/2011/02/watson-on-jeopardy-day-one-man-vs-machine-for-global-bragging-rights.html.