D. Morgan, ‘The Mongols in Syria, 1260–1300’, Crusade and Settlement, ed. P. W. Edbury (Cardiff, 1985), pp. 231–5.

P. Jackson, ‘The crisis in the Holy Land in 1260’, English Historical Review, vol. 95 (1980), pp. 481–513; Amitai-Preiss, Mongols and Mamluks, pp. 26–48; J. M. Smith, ‘Ayn Jalut: Mamluk success or Mongol failure’, Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, vol. 44 (1984), pp. 307–47; P. Thorau, ‘The battle of Ayn Jalut: A re-examination’, Crusade and Settlement, ed. P. W. Edbury (Cardiff, 1985), pp. 236–41.

Thorau, The Lion of Egypt, pp. 75–88.

Thorau, The Lion of Egypt, pp. 91–119.

Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives, pp. 225–46; D. P. Little, ‘Jerusalem under the Ayyubids and Mamluks 1197–1516 AD’, Jerusalem in History, ed. K. J. Asali (London, 1989), pp. 177–200.

Thorau, The Lion of Egypt, pp. 103–5.

P. M. Holt, ‘The treaties of the early Mamluk sultans with the Frankish states’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, vol. 43 (1980), pp. 67–76; P. M. Holt, ‘Mamluk–Frankish diplomatic relations in the reign of Baybars’, Nottingham Medieval Studies, vol. 32 (1988), pp. 180–95; P. M. Holt, Early Mamluk Diplomacy (Leiden, 1995).

D. Ayalon, ‘Aspects of the Mamluk phenomenon: Ayyubids, Kurds and Turks’, Der Islam, vol. 54 (1977), pp. 1–32; D. Ayalon, ‘Notes on Furusiyya exercises and games in the Mamluk sultanate’, Scripta Hierosolymitana, vol. 9 (1961), pp. 31–62; H. Rabie, ‘The training of the Mamluk Faris’, War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, ed. V.J. Parry and M. E. Yapp (London, 1975), pp. 153–63.

The sultan also tried, but failed, to develop an elephant cavalry. Efforts were made to construct a Mamluk fleet–Islam having enjoyed little or no presence on the Mediterranean since the Third Crusade–but Baybars’ ships seem to have been relatively poorly designed, and most sank during a later attempt to assault Cyprus.

Thorau, The Lion of Egypt, p. 168.

‘Les Gestes des Chiprois’, Recueil des historiens des croisades, Documents arméniens, vol. 2, ed. Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (Paris, 1906), p. 766. This text is translated in: P. Crawford (trans.), The ‘Templar of Tyre’: Part III of the ‘Deeds of the Cypriots’ (Aldershot, 2003).

Ibn ‘Abd al-Zahir, Arab Historians of the Crusades, trans. F. Gabrieli (London, 1969), pp. 310–12.

William of Saint-Parthus, Vie de St Louis, ed. H.-F. Delaborde (Paris, 1899), pp. 153–5.

Ibn al-Furat, Arab Historians of the Crusades, trans. F. Gabrieli (London, 1969), p. 319.

S. Lloyd, ‘The Lord Edward’s Crusade, 1270–72’, War and Government: Essays in Honour of J. O. Prestwich, ed. J. Gillingham and J. C. Holt (Woodbridge, 1984), pp. 120–33; Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 124–-32.

Thorau, The Lion of Egypt, pp. 225–9, 235–43.

L. Northrup, From Slave to Sultan: The Career of al-Mansur Qalawun and the Consolidation of Mamluk Rule in Egypt and Syria (678–689 A.H./1279–1290 A.D.) (Stuttgart, 1998); P. M. Holt, ‘The presentation of Qalawun by Shafi‘ b. ibn ‘Ali’, The Islamic World from Classical to Modern Times, ed. C. E. Bosworth, C. Issawi, R. Savory and A. L. Udovitch (Princeton, 1989), pp. 141–50.

Amitai-Preiss, Mongols and Mamluks, pp. 179–201.

Richard, The Crusades, pp. 434–41; P. M. Holt, ‘Qalawun’s treaty with the Latin kingdom (682/1283): negotiation and abrogation’, Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk Eras, ed. U. Vermeulen and D. de Smet (Leiden, 1995), pp. 325–34.

Abu’l Fida, Arab Historians of the Crusades, trans. F. Gabrieli (London, 1969), p. 342; R. Irwin, ‘The Mamluk conquest of the county of Tripoli’, Crusade and Settlement, ed. P. W. Edbury (Cardiff, 1985), pp. 246–50.

Richard, The Crusades, pp. 463–4.

Abu’l Fida, Arab Historians of the Crusades, pp. 344–5; ‘Les Gestes des Chiprois’, p. 811; D. P. Little, ‘The fall of ‘Akka in 690/1291: the Muslim version’, Studies in Islamic History and Civilisation in Honour of Professor David Ayalon, ed. M. Sharon (Jerusalem, 1986), pp. 159–82.

Abu l-Mahasin, Arab Historians of the Crusades, trans. F. Gabrieli (London, 1969), p. 347; ‘Les Gestes des Chiprois’, pp. 812, 814; Abu’l Fida, Arab Historians of the Crusades, p. 346.

Abu l-Mahasin, Arab Historians of the Crusades, p. 349; ‘Les Gestes des Chiprois’, p. 816; J. Delaville le Roulx (ed.), Cartulaire général de l’ordre des Hospitaliers 1100–1310, vol. 3 (Paris, 1899), p. 593; Abu’l Fida, Arab Historians of the Crusades, p. 346.

CONCLUSION: THE LEGACY OF THE CRUSADES

M. Barber, The Trial of the Templars (Cambridge, 1978); N. Housley, ‘The Crusading Movement, 1274–1700’, The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades, ed. J. S. C. Riley-Smith (Oxford, 1995), pp. 260–93; N. Housley, The Later Crusades (Oxford, 1992).

E. Siberry, Criticism of Crusading, 1095–1274 (Oxford, 1985). Historians have yet to demonstrate whether or not the warfare carried out during the crusading era was unusually violent or extreme in comparison to other medieval conflicts. This is one fundamental area of enquiry in which further research is urgently needed.

For a readable attempt to place crusading within the wider context of Christian and Muslim relations see: R. Fletcher, The Cross and the Crescent (London, 2003).

Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives, pp. 257–429; Housley, Contesting the Crusades, pp. 144–66; C. J. Tyerman, Fighting for Christendom: Holy War and the Crusades (Oxford, 2004), pp. 79–92, 155–70.

C. J. Tyerman, ‘What the crusades meant to Europe’, The Medieval World, ed. P. Linehan and J. L. Nelson (London, 2001), pp. 131–45; Tyerman, Fighting for Christendom, pp. 145–54.

J. S. C. Riley-Smith, ‘Islam and the crusades in history and imagination, 8 November 1898–11 September 2001’, Crusades, vol. 2 (2003), p. 166.

Constable, ‘The Historiography of the Crusades’, pp. 6–8; Tyerman, The Invention of the Crusades, pp. 99–118.

Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives, pp. 589–600; R. Irwin, ‘Islam and the Crusades, 1096–1699’, The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades, ed. J. S. C. Riley-Smith (Oxford, 1995), pp. 217–59.

E. Siberry, ‘Images of the crusades in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries’, The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades, ed. J. S. C. Riley-Smith (Oxford, 1995), pp. 365–85; E. Siberry, The New Crusaders: Images of the Crusades in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (Aldershot, 2000); E. Siberry, ‘Nineteenth-century perspectives on the First Crusade’, The Experience of Crusading, 1. Western Approaches, ed. M. G. Bull and N. Housley (Cambridge, 2003), pp. 281–93; R. Irwin, ‘Saladin and the Third Crusade: A case study in historiography and the historical novel’, Companion to Historiography, ed. M. Bentley (London, 1997), pp. 139–52; M. Jubb, The Legend of Saladin in Western Literature and Historiography (Lewiston, 2000).

Riley-Smith, ‘Islam and the crusades in history and imagination’, pp. 155–6. This desire to reconnect with the medieval past found further expression at Versailles, outside Paris. King Louis Philippe of France dedicated five rooms–the Salles des Croisades–of this palace to monumental paintings depicting scenes from the crusades. French nobles with a family history of crusading were permitted to display their coats of arms in these chambers, and 316 emblems were originally hung when the Salles opened in 1840. However, voluble protests over exclusion meant that they were closed, almost immediately, for another three years, so that additional aristocratic dynasties could be represented. This prompted a furious trade in forged documents purporting to prove crusading pedigree, supplied (for a handsome price) by a sharp-witted opportunist named Eugène-Henri Courtois. These forgeries remained undetected until 1956.