61. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 1957. See also Aspray, John von Neumann and the Origins of Modern Computing.

62. Eckert oral history, Charles Babbage Institute. See also McCartney, ENIAC, 125, quoting Eckert: “We were clearly suckered by John von Neumann, who succeeded in some circles at getting my ideas called the ‘von Neumann architecture.’ ”

63. Jennings Bartik, Pioneer Programmer, 518.

64. Charles Duhigg and Steve Lohr, “The Patent, Used as a Sword,” New York Times, Oct. 7, 2012.

65. McCartney, ENIAC, 103.

66. C. Dianne Martin, “ENIAC: The Press Conference That Shook the World,” IEEE Technology and Society, Dec. 1995.

67. Jennings Bartik, Pioneer Programmer, 1878.

68. Fritz, “The Women of ENIAC.”

69. Jennings Bartik, Pioneer Programmer, 1939.

70. Jean Jennings Bartik and Betty Snyder Holberton oral history, Smithsonian, Apr. 27, 1973.

71. Jennings Bartik, Pioneer Programmer, 672, 1964, 1995, 1959.

72. T. R Kennedy, “Electronic Computer Flashes Answers,” New York Times, Feb. 15, 1946.

73. McCartney, ENIAC, 107.

74. Jennings Bartik, Pioneer Programmer, 2026, 2007.

75. Jean Jennings Bartik oral history, Computer History Museum.

76. McCartney, ENIAC, 132.

77. Steven Henn, “The Night a Computer Predicted the Next President,” NPR, Oct. 31, 2012; Alex Bochannek, “Have You Got a Prediction for Us, UNIVAC?” Computer History Museum, http://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/have-you-got-a-prediction-for-us-univac/. Some reports say that CBS did not air the Eisenhower prediction because preelection polls had predicted that Stevenson would win. This is not true; polls had predicted an Eisenhower win.

78. Hopper oral history, Computer History Museum, Dec. 1980.

79. Beyer, Grace Hopper, 277.

80. Von Neumann to Stanley Frankel, Oct. 29, 1946; Joel Shurkin, Engines of the Mind (Washington Square Press, 1984), 204; Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 1980; Stern, “John von Neumann’s Influence on Electronic Digital Computing.”

81. Eckert oral history, Charles Babbage Institute.

82. Goldstine, The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann, 5077.

83. Crispin Rope, “ENIAC as a Stored-Program Computer: A New Look at the Old Records,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Oct. 2007; Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 4429.

84. Fritz, “The Women of ENIAC.”

85. Maurice Wilkes, “How Babbage’s Dream Came True,” Nature, Oct. 1975.

86. Hodges, Alan Turing, 10622.

87. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 2024. See also Goldstine, The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann, 5376.

88. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 6092.

89. Hodges, Alan Turing, 6972.

90. Alan Turing, “Lecture to the London Mathematical Society,” Feb. 20, 1947, available at http://www.turingarchive.org/; Hodges, Alan Turing, 9687.

91. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 5921.

92. Geoffrey Jefferson, “The Mind of Mechanical Man,” Lister Oration, June 9, 1949, Turing Archive, http://www.turingarchive.org/browse.php/B/44.

93. Hodges, Alan Turing, 10983.

94. For an online version, see http://loebner.net/Prizef/TuringArticle.html.

95. John Searle, “Minds, Brains and Programs,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1980. See also “The Chinese Room Argument,” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-room/.

96. Hodges, Alan Turing, 11305; Max Newman, “Alan Turing, An Appreciation,” the Manchester Guardian, June 11, 1954.

97. M. H. A. Newman, Alan M. Turing, Sir Geoffrey Jefferson, and R. B. Braithwaite, “Can Automatic Calculating Machines Be Said to Think?” 1952 BBC broadcast, reprinted in Stuart Shieber, editor, The Turing Test: Verbal Behavior as the Hallmark of Intelligence (MIT, 2004); Hodges, Alan Turing, 12120.

98. Hodges, Alan Turing, 12069.

99. Hodges, Alan Turing, 12404. For discussions of Turing’s suicide and character, see Robin Gandy, unpublished obituary of Alan Turing for the Times, and other items in the Turing Archives, http://www.turingarchive.org/. His mother, Sara, liked to believe that Turing’s suicide was actually an accident caused when he was using cyanide to gold-plate a spoon. She sent to his archive a spoon she found in his lab with her note, “This is the spoon which I found in Alan Turing’s laboratory. It is similar to the one which he gold-plated himself. It seems quite probable he was intending to gold-plate this one using cyanide of potassium of his own manufacture.” Exhibit AMT/A/12, Turing Archive, http://www.turingarchive.org/browse.php/A/12.

CHAPTER FOUR: THE TRANSISTOR

1. Jon Gertner, The Idea Factory: Bell Labs and the Great Age of American Innovation (Penguin, 2012; locations refer to the Kindle edition). In addition to specific citations below, sources for this section include Joel Shurkin, Broken Genius: The Rise and Fall of William Shockley (Macmillan, 2006; locations refer to the Kindle edition); Lillian Hoddeson and Vicki Daitch, True Genius: The Life and Science of John Bardeen (National Academies, 2002); Michael Riordan and Lillian Hoddeson, Crystal Fire: The Invention of the Transistor and the Birth of the Information Age (Norton, 1998); William Shockley, “The Invention of the Transistor—An Example of Creative-Failure Methodology,” National Bureau of Standards Special Publication, May 1974, 47–89; William Shockley, “The Path to the Conception of the Junction Transistor,” IEEE Transactions of Electron Device, July 1976; David Pines, “John Bardeen,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Sept. 2009; “Special Issue: John Bardeen,” Physics Today, Apr. 1992, with remembrances by seven of his colleagues; John Bardeen, “Semiconductor Research Leading to the Point Contact Transistor,” Nobel Prize lecture, Dec. 11, 1956; John Bardeen, “Walter Houser Brattain: A Biographical Memoir,” National Academy of Sciences, 1994; Transistorized!, PBS, transcripts and interviews, 1999, http://www.pbs.org/transistor/index.html; William Shockley oral history, American Institute of Physics (AIP), Sept. 10, 1974; Oral History of Shockley Semiconductor, Computer History Museum, Feb. 27, 2006; John Bardeen oral history, AIP, May 12, 1977; Walter Brattain oral history, AIP, Jan. 1964.

2. Gertner, The Idea Factory, 2255.

3. Shurkin, Broken Genius, 2547.

4. John Pierce, “Mervin Joe Kelly: 1894–1971,” National Academy of Sciences, Biographical Memoirs, 1975, http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/kelly-mervin.pdf; Gertner, The Idea Factory, 2267.

5. Shurkin, Broken Genius, 178.

6. Shurkin, Broken Genius, 231.

7. Shurkin, Broken Genius, 929; Lillian Hoddeson, “The Discovery of the Point-Contact Transistor,” Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 12, no. 1 (1981): 76.

8. John Pierce interview, Transistorized!, PBS, 1999.

9. Shurkin, Broken Genius, 935; Shockley, “The Path to the Conception of the Junction Transistor.”

10. Gertner, The Idea Factory, 1022.

11. Gertner, The Idea Factory, 1266.

12. Gertner, The Idea Factory, 1336.

13. Brattain oral history, AIP.

14. Pines, “John Bardeen.”

15. Bardeen, “Walter Houser Brattain.”

16. Brattain oral history, AIP.

17. Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 126.

18. Shockley, “The Path to the Conception of the Junction Transistor”; Michael Riordan, “The Lost History of the Transistor,” IEEE Spectrum, May 2004.

19. Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 121.

20. Brattain oral history, AIP.