2. In addition to the sources cited below, this section draws from Kurt Beyer, Grace Hopper and the Invention of the Information Age (MIT, 2009), and the following trove of Grace Hopper oral histories: Smithsonian (five sessions), July 1968, Nov. 1968, Jan. 7, 1969, Feb. 4, 1969, July 5, 1972; the Computer History Museum, Dec. 1980; Grace Hopper interview, Sept. 1982, Women in Federal Government oral history project, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard.

3. Kurt Beyer mistakenly calls her the first to get a math doctorate from Yale. Charlotte Barnum was the first in 1895, and there were ten before Hopper. See Judy Green and Jeanne LaDuke, Pioneering Women in American Mathematics: The pre-1940 PhDs (American Mathematical Society, 2009), 53; Beyer, Grace Hopper, 25 and 26.

4. Hopper oral history, Smithsonian, July 5, 1972.

5. Hopper oral history, Smithsonian, July 1968; Rosario Rausa, “In Profile, Grace Murray Hopper,” Naval History, Fall 1992.

6. Hopper oral histories (she told the same story), Computer History Museum and Smithsonian, July 5, 1972.

7. The Staff of the Harvard Computation Library [Grace Hopper and Howard Aiken], A Manual of Operation for the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (Harvard, 1946).

8. Grace Hopper oral history, Computer History Museum.

9. Beyer, Grace Hopper, 130.

10. Beyer, Grace Hopper, 135.

11. Richard Bloch oral history, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.

12. Beyer, Grace Hopper, 53.

13. Grace Hopper and Richard Bloch panel discussion comments, Aug. 30, 1967, in Henry S. Tropp, “The 20th Anniversary Meeting of the Association for Computing Machinery,” IEEE Annals, July 1987.

14. Beyer, Grace Hopper, 5.

15. Hopper oral history, Smithsonian, July 5, 1972.

16. Howard Aiken oral history, conducted by Henry Tropp and I. Bernard Cohen, Smithsonian Institution, Feb. 1973.

17. Grace Hopper and John Mauchly, “Influence of Programming Techniques on the Design of Computers,” Proceedings of the IRE, Oct. 1953.

18. Harvard computer log, Sept. 9, 1947, http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/images/h96000/h96566k.jpg.

19. Grace Hopper oral history, Smithsonian, Nov. 1968.

20. The Moore School Lectures, Charles Babbage Institute, reprint (MIT Press, 1985).

21. Hopper oral history, Smithsonian, Nov. 1968.

22. In addition to the sources cited below, this section draws on Jean Jennings Bartik, Pioneer Programmer (Truman State, 2013; locations refer to the Kindle edition); Jean Bartik oral history, conducted by Gardner Hendrie, Computer History Museum, July 1, 2008; Jean Bartik oral history, conducted by Janet Abbate, IEEE Global History Network, Aug. 3, 2001; Steve Lohr, “Jean Bartik, Software Pioneer, Dies at 86,” New York Times, Apr. 7, 2011; Jennifer Light, “When Computers Were Women,” Technology and Culture, July 1999.

23. Jordynn Jack, Science on the Home Front: American Women Scientists in World War II (University of Illinois, 2009), 3.

24. Jennings Bartik, Pioneer Programmer, 1282.

25. W. Barkley Fritz, “The Women of ENIAC,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Fall 1996.

26. Fritz, “The Women of ENIAC.”

27. Jennings Bartik, Pioneer Programmer, 1493. See also LeAnn Erickson, “Top Secret Rosies: The Female Computers of WWII” (Video, PBS, 2002); Bill Mauchly, ENIAC website, https://sites.google.com/a/opgate.com/eniac/; Thomas Petzinger Jr., “History of Software Begins with Work of Some Brainy Women,” Wall Street Journal, Nov. 15, 1996. Kathy Kleiman helped bring recognition to the women programmers after first meeting them when researching her Harvard undergraduate thesis on women in computing in 1986, and she coproduced a twenty-minute documentary called The Computers, which premiered in 2014. See ENIAC Programmers Project website, http://eniacprogrammers.org/.

28. Kay McNulty Mauchly Antonelli, “The Kathleen McNulty Mauchly Antonelli Story,” ENIAC website, https://sites.google.com/a/opgate.com/eniac/Home/kay-mcnulty-mauchly-antonelli.

29. Fritz, “The Women of ENIAC.”

30. Jennings Bartik, Pioneer Programmer, 1480.

31. Autumn Stanley, Mothers and Daughters of Invention (Rutgers, 1995), 443.

32. Fritz, “The Women of ENIAC.”

33. Oral history of Jean Jennings Bartik and Betty Snyder Holberton, conducted by Henry Tropp, Smithsonian, Apr. 27, 1973.

34. Jennings Bartik oral history, Computer History Museum.

35. Jennings Bartik oral history, Computer History Museum.

36. Jennings Bartik, Pioneer Programmer, 557.

37. Eckert and Mauchly, “Progress Report on ENIAC,” Dec. 31, 1943, in Nancy Stern, From ENIAC to UNIVAC (Digital Press, 1981).

38. John Mauchly, “Amending the ENIAC Story,” letter to the editor of Datamation, Oct. 1979.

39. Presper Eckert, “Disclosure of a Magnetic Calculating Machine,” Jan. 29, 1944, declassified trial exhibit, in Don Knuth archives, Computer History Museum; Mark Priestley, A Science of Operations (Springer, 2011), 127; Stern, From ENIAC to UNIVAC, 28.

40. In addition to specific notes below, this section draws on William Aspray, John von Neumann and the Origins of Modern Computing (MIT, 1990); Nancy Stern, “John von Neumann’s Influence on Electronic Digital Computing, 1944–1946,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Oct.–Dec. 1980; Stanislaw Ulam, “John von Neumann,” Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, Feb. 1958; George Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral (Random House, 2012; locations refer to Kindle edition); Herman Goldstine, The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann (Princeton, 1972; locations refer to Kindle edition).

41. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 41.

42. Nicholas Vonneumann, “John von Neumann as Seen by His Brother” (Privately printed, 1987), 22, excerpted as “John von Neumann: Formative Years,” IEEE Annals, Fall 1989.

43. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 45.

44. Goldstine, The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann, 3550.

45. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 1305.

46. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 1395.

47. Hopper oral history, Smithsonian, Jan. 7, 1969.

48. Bloch oral history, Feb. 22, 1984, Charles Babbage Institute.

49. Robert Slater, Portraits in Silicon (MIT Press, 1987), 88; Beyer, Grace Hopper and the Invention of the Information Age, 9.

50. Goldstine, The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann, 3634.

51. Goldstine, The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann, 3840.

52. Goldstine, The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann, 199; Goldstine to Gillon, Sept. 2, 1944; Beyer, Grace Hopper and the Invention of the Information Age, 120. See also John Mauchly, “Amending the ENIAC Story,” letter to the editor of Datamation, Oct. 1979; Arthur W. Burks, “From ENIAC to the Stored Program Computer,” in Nicholas Metropolis et al., editors, A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (Academic Press, 1980).

53. Jean Jennings Bartik and Betty Snyder Holberton oral history, Smithsonian, Apr. 27, 1973.

54. McCartney, ENIAC, 116.

55. Jean Jennings Bartik and Betty Snyder Holberton oral history, Smithsonian, Apr. 27, 1973.

56. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 53.

57. Burks, Who Invented the Computer?, 161; Norman Macrae, John von Neumann (American Mathematical Society, 1992), 281.

58. Ritchie, The Computer Pioneers, 178.

59. Presper Eckert oral history, conducted by Nancy Stern, Charles Babbage Institute, Oct. 28, 1977; Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 1952.

60. John von Neumann, “First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC,” U.S. Army Ordnance Department and the University of Pennsylvania, June 30, 1945. The report is available at http://www.virtualtravelog.net/wp/wp-content/media/2003-08-TheFirstDraft.pdf.