Ibn Jubayr, p. 318; Itinerarium Peregrinorum, pp. 75–6. On the siege of Acre and siege weaponry see: Rogers, Latin Siege Warfare, pp. 212–36, 251–73. On the geography of Acre see: D. Jacoby, ‘Crusader Acre in the thirteenth century: Urban layout and topography’, Studia Medievali, 3rd series, vol. 10 (1979), pp. 1–45; D. Jacoby, ‘Montmusard, suburb of crusader Acre: The first stage of its development’, Montjoie: Studies in Crusade History in Honour of Hans Eberhard Mayer, ed. B. Z. Kedar, J. S. C. Riley-Smith and R. Hiestand (Aldershot, 2000), pp. 205–17.

La Continuation de Guillaume de Tyr, p. 89; Ambroise, p. 45. Mount Toron was also known as Tell al-Musallabin or Tell al-Fukhkhar.

Abu Shama, pp. 412–15; Itinerarium Peregrinorum, p. 67.

Ambroise, p. 46; Itinerarium Peregrinorum, p. 67.

Imad al-Din, p. 172; Lyons and Jackson, Saladin, pp. 301–2.

Baha al-Din, p. 102–3; Itinerarium Peregrinorum, pp. 70, 72.

Baha al-Din, p. 104; Tyerman, God’s War, pp. 353–4.

Itinerarium Peregrinorum, p. 73; Ibn al-Athir, vol. 2, p. 369.

Baha al-Din, pp. 107–8; Ambroise, p. 52.

Imad al-Din, Arab Historians of the Crusades, trans. F. Gabrieli, pp. 204–6; Baha al-Din, pp. 27, 100–101; Ambroise, pp. 55, 58; B. Z. Kedar, ‘A Western survey of Saladin’s forces at the siege of Acre’, Montjoie: Studies in Crusade History in Honour of Hans Eberhard Mayer, ed. B.Z. Kedar, J. S. C. Riley-Smith and R. Hiestand (Aldershot, 2000), pp. 113–22.

Ambroise, pp. 52, 55; Itinerarium Peregrinorum, pp. 80, 82; Baha al-Din, pp. 124, 127.

Saladin was joined by his son al-Zahir of Aleppo and Keukburi of Harran on 4 May; by Imad al-Din Zanki, lord of Sinjar, on 29 May; by Sanjar Shah, lord of Jazirat, on 13 June; by Mosuli troops under ‘Ala al-Din, son of Izz al-Din Masud, on 15 June; and by Zayn al-Din of Irbil in late June or early July. Baha al-Din, pp. 109–12.

Baha al-Din, p. 106. Lyons and Jackson, Saladin, pp. 312–13, 316. Saladin dispatched troops to Manbij, Kafartab, Baalbek, Shaizar, Aleppo and Hama. Among those who left the environs of Acre was al-Zahir.

Baha al-Din, p. 124.

Baha al-Din, pp. 110–11; Ibn al-Athir, vol. 2, p. 373; Ambroise, p. 55.

Baha al-Din, p. 123; Ambroise, p. 59.

La Continuation de Guillaume de Tyr, p. 105; Itinerarium Peregrinorum, p. 74; Ambroise, p. 56.

La Continuation de Guillaume de Tyr, p. 98; Ibn al-Athir, vol. 2, p. 375.

Ambroise, pp. 52, 61–3. Frederick of Swabia’s presence, as a ruler largely bereft of manpower, raised uncomfortable questions about leadership and King Guy’s status. Baha al-Din (pp. 128–31) believed that, soon after his arrival, Frederick spearheaded a new offensive against Acre, employing experimental military technology. This involved the medieval equivalent of a tank–a huge wheeled structure, clad with metal sheets, housing a massive iron-tipped battering ram. But Latin eyewitnesses gave all the credit for this initiative to the French and, in any case, once the ‘tank’ reached the foot of the walls it was quickly crushed and burned beneath a barrage of boulders and Greek fire.

Baha al-Din, pp. 130, 132; Lyons and Jackson, Saladin, pp. 318–20. Around the same time, work to shore up the defences of Alexandria and Damietta was proceeding apace in Egypt, and instructions were broadcast through Syria to store grain from the recent harvest in case of invasion.

Baha al-Din, pp. 140, 143; Lyons and Jackson, Saladin, pp. 323–4; Itinerarium Peregrinorum, pp. 127, 129–30; Ambroise, pp. 68–71, 73.

Baha al-Din, pp. 141–2; Lyons and Jackson, Saladin, pp. 323–5.

Ambroise, p. 38; Baha al-Din, p. 150.

Itinerarium Peregrinorum, pp. 204–5; P. W. Edbury, The Kingdom of Cyprus and the Crusades, 1191–1374 (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 1–12.

Baha al-Din, pp. 145, 149–50; La Continuation de Guillaume de Tyr, pp. 109, 111.

Baha al-Din, p. 146; R. Heiser, ‘The Royal Familiares of King Richard I’, Medieval Prosopography, vol. 10 (1989), pp. 25–50.

Itinerarium Peregrinorum, pp. 206, 211; Baha al-Din, p. 155.

Baha al-Din, pp. 153, 156, 159.

Itinerarium Peregrinorum, p. 211; Ambroise, p. 74.

Codice Diplomatico della repubblica di Genova, ed. C. Imperiale di Sant’ Angelo, 3 vols (Genoa, 1936–42), ii, n. 198, pp. 378–80; J. S. C. Riley-Smith, The Feudal Nobility and the Kingdom of Jerusalem 1174–1277 (London, 1973), pp. 112–17.

Itinerarium Peregrinorum, pp. 218–19. The precise details of these siege weapons–their origins and exact designs–are unclear, because the contemporary sources are frustratingly imprecise. It is possible that some use was made of counterweight technology in these stone-throwers (traction-powered devices being the established norm). It is also possible that the technology and materials for these engines were brought from Europe, or that captured engineers contributed to their development. The dating of Philip’s independent assault is problematic and it may have occurred at any point between 17 June and 1 July. Hugh of Burgundy, the Templars and Hospitallers all appear to have manned their own catapults. Richard does seem to have built a siege tower at Acre, protected by ‘leather, cords and wood’, but this structure does not appear to have played a major role in the assault.

Baha al-Din, pp. 155–7.

Baha al-Din, pp. 156–7; Itinerarium Peregrinorum, pp. 223–4.

Ambroise, p. 80; Itinerarium Peregrinorum, p. 225.

Ambroise, pp. 82, 84; Baha al-Din, p. 161; La Continuation de Guillaume de Tyr, p. 125.

Baha al-Din, p. 161; Imad al-Din, p. 318; Itinerarium Peregrinorum, p. 233; Ambroise, p. 84.

Itinerarium Peregrinorum, pp. 233–4.

Baha al-Din, p. 162; Lyons and Jackson, Saladin, p. 331; Gillingham, Richard I, p. 162; Pryor, Geography, Technology and War, pp. 125–30.

Ambroise, p. 85; Rigord, ‘Gesta Philippi Augusti’, Oeuvres de Rigord et de Guillaume le Breton, ed. H. F. Delaborde, vol. 1 (Paris, 1882), pp. 116–17; Howden, Gesta, vol. 2, pp. 181–3; Gillingham, Richard I, p. 166.

‘Epistolae Cantuarienses’, Chronicles and Memorials of the Reign of Richard I, ed. W. Stubbs, vol. 2, Rolls Series 88 (London, 1865), p. 347.

Baha al-Din, pp. 164–5; Imad al-Din, p. 330; Ibn al-Athir, vol. 2, p. 390; Lyons and Jackson, Saladin, pp. 331–3.

Howden, Chronica, vol. 3, pp. 127, 130–31; Howden, Gesta, vol. 2, pp. 187, 189; Ambroise, pp. 87–9; Itinerarium Peregrinorum, pp. 240–43; La Continuation de Guillaume de Tyr, pp. 127–9; ‘Historia de expeditione Friderici Imperatoris’, p. 99; R. Grousset, Histoire des Croisades, 3 vols (Paris, 1936), vol. 3, pp. 61–2; Gillingham, Richard I, pp. 166–71.

Richard also had the significant advantage of enjoying close relations with the leaders of the two main Military Orders. Robert of Sablé, who was appointed to the vacant post of master of the Templars in 1191, was one of the Lionheart’s leading vassals from the Sarthe valley and had served as one of five fleet commanders during the journey to the Levant. Garnier of Nablus, who was elected as Hospitaller master in late 1189 or early 1190, was the former prior of England and grand commander of France. He travelled to the Near East with Richard’s contingent.

Smail, Crusading Warfare, p. 163; Gillingham, Richard I, p. 174; J. F. Verbruggen, The Art of Warfare in Western Europe during the Middle Ages (Woodbridge, 1997), pp. 232–9; Ambroise, pp. 91–2.

Ambroise, p. 92.

Baha al-Din, p. 170; Ambroise, p. 93.

Ambroise, p. 94; Baha al-Din, p. 170.