3 September

The Allies begin the invasion of the Italian

mainland. Italy surrenders unconditionally.

13 October

Italy swaps sides, and declares war on

Germany.

14 November

RAF begins the ‘Battle of Berlin’.

1944

6 June

D-Day: the Allies land on the beaches of

Normandy.

13 June

The Germans launch their first V-1 flying

bombs on London.

20 July

Hitler survives assassination attempt.

8 September

The first V-2 rocket hits London.

16 October

Soviet forces enter East Prussia.

6 November

President Roosevelt is re-elected for a fourth

term despite failing health.

16 December

Opening of the German Ardennes

counter-offensive.

1945

26 January

Soviet troops liberate Auschwitz.

3 February

Berlin suffers its worst air raid of the war

when 1,500 USAAF bombers drop more than 2,000 tons of bombs on the city.

4 February

Yalta Conference begins.

13–15 February

Dresden is bombed, killing tens of thousands

in a firestorm similar to that at Hamburg.

7 March

The Americans cross the Rhine into Germany.

9/10 March

Tokyo is firebombed, destroying sixteen

square miles of the city and killing almost

90,000 people.

18 March

RAF drop an incredible 4,000 tons of bombs

on Berlin.

11 April

Concentration camp at Buchenwald is

liberated by the Americans.

12 April

President Roosevelt dies.

13 April

Concentration camp at Belsen is liberated by

the British.

16 April

Russians begin their final push across the river

Oder towards Berlin.

30 April

Hitler commits suicide.

3 May

Hamburg surrenders to the Allies without a fight.

7 May

Unconditional German surrender.

8 May

VE Day.

6 August

The first atomic bomb is dropped on

Hiroshima.

9 August

The second atomic bomb is dropped on

Nagasaki.

15 August

The Japanese emperor informs his people that

he will surrender.

2 September

VJ Day: the signing of the Japanese surrender

brings the Second World War to an end.

After the war

30 September 1946

Nuremburg Tribunal on war crimes delivers its verdicts.

Winter 1945–6

Cold temperatures cause problems across occupied Germany.

Winter 1946–7

Severe and sustained freeze across Germany sees temperatures drop to –28°C.

27 May 1947

The British and American zones of control in Germany merge to form the ‘Bizone’.

July 1947

Sixteen western European nations form the Committee for European Economic Co-operation. The Marshall Plan begins to take effect.

20–21 June 1948

The Deutschmark is introduced in Germany, signalling the beginning of the Wirtschaftswunder.

Appendix C

Chronology of ‘Operation Gomorrah’

24 July

12.18

Public air-raid warning, set off by American B-17s heading for Norway.

Night of 24/25 July: first RAF raid

22.00

791 British aircraft set out for Hamburg.

00.19

Air-raid danger (thirty minutes) sounded.

00.30 approx

RAF begin dropping ‘Window’, creating confusion for German radar.

00.33

Main air-raid alarm.

00.57

Marker flares ( Tannenbaum) rain down on western suburbs of Hamburg.

01.02

The first bombs begin to fall.

01.50

The last handful of 2,300 tons of bombs falls on the city.

03.01

The all-clear is sounded in Hamburg.

25 July: first USAAF raid

13.20

123 US B-17s take off for Hamburg.

16.15

Luftwaffe begin attacks on the US formations.

16.20

Main air-raid alarm sounded in Hamburg.

16.36

384th BG drop the first bombs on Howaldtswerke shipyards.

16.40

The last bombs drop on Hamburg.

17.10

381st BG, unable to locate Klöckner factory, drop their bombs on Heide on the way home.

17.22

The all-clear sounds in Hamburg.

18.10

After almost two hours, the Luftwaffe finally stop harassing US formations.

20.00

The surviving B-17 crews return to base.

Night of 25/26 July

00.35

Main air-raid warning in Hamburg.

00.40 approx

6 RAF Mosquitos bomb Hamburg in a nuisance raid.

26 July: second USAAF raid

08.50

121 American B-17s take off for Hamburg; 379th BG and 384th BG abort mission, leaving only four bomb groups to do the job.

11.32

Main air raid alarm sounded in Hamburg.

11.59

Fifty-four B-17s drop their bombs on harbour district. The bombing lasts one minute.

12.50

All-clear sounds in Hamburg.

15.08

American bombers return to base.

Night of 26/27 July

00.20

Main air raid alarm sounded in Hamburg.

00.30 approx

Four RAF Mosquitos (of six dispatched) bomb Hamburg in nuisance raid.

00.55

All-clear sounds.

27 July

Five false alarms keep much of Hamburg in panic throughout the day.

Night of 27/28 July: second RAF raid

22.00

787 RAF bombers take off for Hamburg.

23.40

Main air-raid alarm sounds in the city.

00.55

RAF Pathfinders drop yellow markers.

01.00

First bombs begin to fall in the east of the city.

01.20

The firestorm begins to develop.

01.45

The last bombs fall.

02.00

Firestorm so strong that men outside main fire station can only crawl on their hands and knees against the wind.

02.40

All-clear sounds.

03.00–03.30

Climax of firestorm.

05.00 approx

British planes return to base.

28 July

Morning

Karl Kaufmann orders the evacuation of women and children. Almost a million people begin their exodus from the city.

Night of 28/29 July

00.15

Main air-raid alarm sounds.

00.25 approx

4 RAF Mosquitos bomb Hamburg on nuisance raid.

01.03 All-clear sounds.

Night of 29/30 July: third RAF raid

22.00

777 RAF planes take off for Hamburg.

23.58

Main air-raid alarm sounds in the city.

00.37

First marker flares fall on the city.

00.43

First bombs begin to fall.

01.30

The last bombs fall.

02.00

A second firestorm develops in the north-eastern suburb of Barmbek.

02.15

All-clear sounds.

04.30 approx

RAF bombers return to base.

Night of 2/3 August: fourth RAF raid

23.20

740 RAF bombers set out for Hamburg.

00.59

Main air-raid alarm sounds in the city.

01.30 approx

British force begins to encounter violent electrical storm.

02.07

Scattered bombing begins all over northern Germany.