3 September
The Allies begin the invasion of the Italian
mainland. Italy surrenders unconditionally.
13 October
Italy swaps sides, and declares war on
Germany.
14 November
RAF begins the ‘Battle of Berlin’.
1944
6 June
D-Day: the Allies land on the beaches of
Normandy.
13 June
The Germans launch their first V-1 flying
bombs on London.
20 July
Hitler survives assassination attempt.
8 September
The first V-2 rocket hits London.
16 October
Soviet forces enter East Prussia.
6 November
President Roosevelt is re-elected for a fourth
term despite failing health.
16 December
Opening of the German Ardennes
counter-offensive.
1945
26 January
Soviet troops liberate Auschwitz.
3 February
Berlin suffers its worst air raid of the war
when 1,500 USAAF bombers drop more than 2,000 tons of bombs on the city.
4 February
Yalta Conference begins.
13–15 February
Dresden is bombed, killing tens of thousands
in a firestorm similar to that at Hamburg.
7 March
The Americans cross the Rhine into Germany.
9/10 March
Tokyo is firebombed, destroying sixteen
square miles of the city and killing almost
90,000 people.
18 March
RAF drop an incredible 4,000 tons of bombs
on Berlin.
11 April
Concentration camp at Buchenwald is
liberated by the Americans.
12 April
President Roosevelt dies.
13 April
Concentration camp at Belsen is liberated by
the British.
16 April
Russians begin their final push across the river
Oder towards Berlin.
30 April
Hitler commits suicide.
3 May
Hamburg surrenders to the Allies without a fight.
7 May
Unconditional German surrender.
8 May
VE Day.
6 August
The first atomic bomb is dropped on
Hiroshima.
9 August
The second atomic bomb is dropped on
Nagasaki.
15 August
The Japanese emperor informs his people that
he will surrender.
2 September
VJ Day: the signing of the Japanese surrender
brings the Second World War to an end.
After the war
30 September 1946
Nuremburg Tribunal on war crimes delivers its verdicts.
Winter 1945–6
Cold temperatures cause problems across occupied Germany.
Winter 1946–7
Severe and sustained freeze across Germany sees temperatures drop to –28°C.
27 May 1947
The British and American zones of control in Germany merge to form the ‘Bizone’.
July 1947
Sixteen western European nations form the Committee for European Economic Co-operation. The Marshall Plan begins to take effect.
20–21 June 1948
The Deutschmark is introduced in Germany, signalling the beginning of the Wirtschaftswunder.
Appendix C
Chronology of ‘Operation Gomorrah’
24 July
12.18
Public air-raid warning, set off by American B-17s heading for Norway.
Night of 24/25 July: first RAF raid
22.00
791 British aircraft set out for Hamburg.
00.19
Air-raid danger (thirty minutes) sounded.
00.30 approx
RAF begin dropping ‘Window’, creating confusion for German radar.
00.33
Main air-raid alarm.
00.57
Marker flares ( Tannenbaum) rain down on western suburbs of Hamburg.
01.02
The first bombs begin to fall.
01.50
The last handful of 2,300 tons of bombs falls on the city.
03.01
The all-clear is sounded in Hamburg.
25 July: first USAAF raid
13.20
123 US B-17s take off for Hamburg.
16.15
Luftwaffe begin attacks on the US formations.
16.20
Main air-raid alarm sounded in Hamburg.
16.36
384th BG drop the first bombs on Howaldtswerke shipyards.
16.40
The last bombs drop on Hamburg.
17.10
381st BG, unable to locate Klöckner factory, drop their bombs on Heide on the way home.
17.22
The all-clear sounds in Hamburg.
18.10
After almost two hours, the Luftwaffe finally stop harassing US formations.
20.00
The surviving B-17 crews return to base.
Night of 25/26 July
00.35
Main air-raid warning in Hamburg.
00.40 approx
6 RAF Mosquitos bomb Hamburg in a nuisance raid.
26 July: second USAAF raid
08.50
121 American B-17s take off for Hamburg; 379th BG and 384th BG abort mission, leaving only four bomb groups to do the job.
11.32
Main air raid alarm sounded in Hamburg.
11.59
Fifty-four B-17s drop their bombs on harbour district. The bombing lasts one minute.
12.50
All-clear sounds in Hamburg.
15.08
American bombers return to base.
Night of 26/27 July
00.20
Main air raid alarm sounded in Hamburg.
00.30 approx
Four RAF Mosquitos (of six dispatched) bomb Hamburg in nuisance raid.
00.55
All-clear sounds.
27 July
Five false alarms keep much of Hamburg in panic throughout the day.
Night of 27/28 July: second RAF raid
22.00
787 RAF bombers take off for Hamburg.
23.40
Main air-raid alarm sounds in the city.
00.55
RAF Pathfinders drop yellow markers.
01.00
First bombs begin to fall in the east of the city.
01.20
The firestorm begins to develop.
01.45
The last bombs fall.
02.00
Firestorm so strong that men outside main fire station can only crawl on their hands and knees against the wind.
02.40
All-clear sounds.
03.00–03.30
Climax of firestorm.
05.00 approx
British planes return to base.
28 July
Morning
Karl Kaufmann orders the evacuation of women and children. Almost a million people begin their exodus from the city.
Night of 28/29 July
00.15
Main air-raid alarm sounds.
00.25 approx
4 RAF Mosquitos bomb Hamburg on nuisance raid.
01.03 All-clear sounds.
Night of 29/30 July: third RAF raid
22.00
777 RAF planes take off for Hamburg.
23.58
Main air-raid alarm sounds in the city.
00.37
First marker flares fall on the city.
00.43
First bombs begin to fall.
01.30
The last bombs fall.
02.00
A second firestorm develops in the north-eastern suburb of Barmbek.
02.15
All-clear sounds.
04.30 approx
RAF bombers return to base.
Night of 2/3 August: fourth RAF raid
23.20
740 RAF bombers set out for Hamburg.
00.59
Main air-raid alarm sounds in the city.
01.30 approx
British force begins to encounter violent electrical storm.
02.07
Scattered bombing begins all over northern Germany.