Caesar did indeed celebrate four triumphs in the autumn of 46 BC, and the staggering scale of each parade can only be imagined. The dictator's generosity to his soldiers and the Roman public in general is recorded. His honour guard composed of soldiers from all ten legions is my invention, so that I could have Romulus return to Rome. It was during these parades rather than at Ruspina that his men were recorded as singing of the 'bald-headed lecher'. Evidence for the victorious general's face being painted red is limited, as is the custom of smearing the statue of Jupiter with blood (or the red pigment cinnabar), but I felt it added to the sense of drama. The battle of Munda was just as remarkable as I've described, however, as were the staggering awards Caesar was granted upon his return to Rome.

Marcus Antonius was indeed the larger-than-life character depicted in The Road to Rome. A wild-living natural soldier, he was famous for his drinking, philandering and womanising. He is recorded as having vomited in front of the entire Senate, and liked to travel in a British war chariot. While his response to the unrest during Caesar's absence in Egypt was heavy-handed, there is no evidence to my knowledge of his being involved with a fugitivarius or organising dirty work on Caesar's behalf. Of course, Fabiola being the catalyst for the conspirators to meet is pure fiction, as is the use of the Lupanar as the location for their meetings. Marcus Junius Brutus was indeed one of the last to join the plot, although he quickly became one of the leaders. As I explained in the note at the end of The Silver Eagle, his compatriot Gaius Cassius Longinus is an amalgam of two historical characters, one of the same name, and his brother (or cousin) Quintus Cassius Longinus.

All kinds of signs were supposed to have occurred in the run-up to the Ides of March. Soothsayers predicted unfavourable omens and Calpurnia, Caesar's wife, had a nightmare about him being murdered. Apparently, the dictator chose to stay at home that morning, but whether it was because of her warning, or because he really was unwell, we do not know. The size of his new army, and his planned campaign to Parthia, are documented. Romulus' dawn visit is fictional, but Decimus Brutus did call in that morning and succeed in persuading Caesar to attend the Senate. Although his Spanish bodyguards really had been disbanded, there is no evidence to suggest that any veterans tried to protect the dictator on that last fateful day.

Two senators did try to help Caesar when his assassins struck, but the press was so great that they were unable to reach him. Obviously, Romulus and Fabiola's encounter over his body is made up, but the presence of Decimus Brutus' gladiators in the nearby arena is not. Who knows if this is coincidence or not? Rather than fleeing immediately, the conspirators placed the cap traditionally worn by a freed slave on a pole and carried it to the Capitoline Hill, showing the public how they had freed the Republic from slavery. The rioting I described actually happened a few days later, after Caesar's funeral. During it, many of the conspirators' houses were attacked, and a loyal supporter of the dictator was murdered when he was wrongly identified as one of Caesar's enemies.

Thanks to the many holes in our knowledge, much has to be left open to interpretation when describing the ancient world. While I have changed details here and there, many of which are explained above, I have also tried to portray the time as accurately as possible. Hopefully this has been done in an entertaining and informative manner, without too many errors. For those that might be present, I apologise.

I must offer some appreciation to the multitude of authors without whose works I would be lost. First among these is A History of Rome by M. Cary and H. H. Scullard; closely following are The Complete Roman Army and Caesar, both by Adrian Goldsworthy; Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars by Duncan Head; and The Roman Triumph by Mary Beard, as well as numerous fantastic volumes from Osprey Publishing. Thanks once again to the members of www.romanarmy.com, whose rapid responses to my questions often help so much. It is quite simply one of the best Roman reference resources there is. I would also like to express real gratitude to my old friend Arthur O'Connor, for all his constructive criticism and help with this and my previous two books. Also a veterinary surgeon, he is blessed with an incisive and insightful mind when it comes to novel-writing, and he frequently helps me to see 'the wood for the trees'. Many thanks too to another old friend and vet, Killian O Morain, for similar services rendered.

Last, but definitely not least, I want to thank my top-class agent, Charlie Viney, for his untiring work on my behalf. To Rosie de Courcy, my wonderful editor, I owe so much: without her razor-sharp input I would be lost. Thanks too to Nicola Taplin, my managing editor, and to Richenda Todd, my excellent copy editor, two people whose efforts on my behalf I appreciate immensely. I am also greatly indebted to Claire Wheller, my physiotherapist, for keeping at bay the various RSIs I have acquired while writing. To my wife, Sarah, and children, Ferdia and Pippa, I owe the deepest debt, for they provide me with all the love I could need. Glossary acetum: sour wine, the universal beverage served to Roman soldiers. Also the word for vinegar, the most common disinfectant used by Roman doctors. Vinegar is excellent at killing bacteria, and its widespread use in western medicine continued until late in the nineteenth century. Aesculapius: son of Apollo, the god of health and the protector of doctors. amphora (pl. amphorae): a large, two-handled clay vessel with a narrow neck used to store wine, olive oil and other produce. It was also a unit of measurement, equivalent to 80 pounds of wine. aquilifer (pl. aquiliferi): the standard-bearer for the aquila, or eagle, of a legion. To carry the symbol which meant everything to Roman soldiers was a position of immense importance. Casualty rates among aquiliferi were high, as they were often positioned near or in the front rank during a battle. The only images surviving today show the aquilifer bare-headed, leading some to suppose that this was always the case. In combat, however, this would have been incredibly dangerous and we can reasonably assume that the aquilifer did wear a helmet. We do not definitely know if he wore an animal skin, as the signifer did, so to have him do so is my interpretation. His armour was often scale, and his shield probably a small one, which could be carried easily without using the hands. During the late Republic, the aquila itself was silver and clutched a gold thunderbolt. The wooden staff it was mounted on had a spike at its base, allowing it to be shoved into the ground, and sometimes it had arms, which permitted it to be carried more easily. Even when damaged, the aquila was not destroyed, but lovingly repaired time and again. If lost in battle, the Romans would do virtually anything to get the standard back. The recovery of Crassus' eagles by Augustus in 20 BC was thus regarded as a major achievement. as (pl. asses): a small bronze coin, originally worth one-fifth of a sestertius. In 23 BC, its makeup was changed to copper. atrium: the large chamber immediately beyond the entrance hall in a Roman house or domus. Frequently built on a grand scale, this was the social and devotional centre of the house. It had an opening in the roof and a pool, the impluvium, to catch the rainwater that entered. aureus (pl. aurei): a small gold coin worth twenty-five denarii. Until the time of the early Empire, it was minted infrequently. ballista (pl. ballistae): a two-armed Roman catapult that looked like a big crossbow on a stand. It operated via a different principle, however, utilising the force from the tightly coiled sinew rope holding the arms rather than the tension in the arms themselves. Ballistae varied in size, from those portable by soldiers to enormous engines that required wagons and mules to move them around. They fired either bolts or stones with great force and precision. Favourite types had nicknames like 'onager', the wild ass, named for its kick; and 'scorpion', called such because of its sting. basilicae: huge covered markets in the Roman Forum; also where judicial, commercial and governmental activities took place. Public trials were conducted here, while lawyers, scribes and moneylenders worked side by side from little stalls. Many official announcements were made in the basilicae. bestiarius (pl. bestiarii): men who hunted and captured animals for the arena in Rome. A highly dangerous occupation, it was also very lucrative. The more exotic the animals – for example elephants, hippopotami, giraffes and rhinoceroses – the higher the premium commanded. The mind boggles at the labour and hazards involved in bringing such animals many hundreds of miles from their natural habitat to Rome. bucina (pl. bucinae): a military trumpet. The Romans used a number of types of instruments, among them the tuba, the cornu and the bucina. These were used for many purposes, from waking the troops each morning to sounding the charge, the halt or the retreat. We are uncertain how the different instruments were played – whether in unison or one after another, for example. To simplify matters, I have used just one of them: the bucina. caldarium: an intensely hot room in Roman bath complexes. Used like a modern-day sauna, most also had a hot plunge pool. The caldarium was heated by hot air which flowed through hollow bricks in the walls and under the raised floor. The source of the piped heat was the hypocaustum, a furnace kept constantly stoked by slaves. caligae: heavy leather sandals worn by the Roman soldier. Sturdily constructed in three layers – a sole, insole and upper – caligae resembled an open-toed boot. The straps could be tightened to make them fit more closely. Dozens of metal studs on the sole gave the sandals good grip; these could also be replaced when necessary. In colder climes, such as Britain, socks were often worn as well. cella (pl. cellae): the windowless, rectangular central room in a temple dedicated to a god. It usually had a statue of the relevant deity, and often an altar for offerings as well. cenacula (pl. cenaculae): see insula. Cerberus: the monstrous three-headed hound that guarded the entrance to Hades. It allowed the spirits of the dead to enter, but none to leave. consul: one of two annually elected chief magistrates, appointed by the people and ratified by the Senate. Effective rulers of Rome for twelve months, they were in charge of civil and military matters and led the Republic's armies into war. Each could countermand the other and both were supposed to heed the wishes of the Senate. No man was supposed to serve as consul more than once. But by the end of the second century BC, powerful nobles such as Marius, Cinna and Sulla were holding on to the position for years on end. This dangerously weakened Rome's democracy, a situation made worse by the triumvirate of Caesar, Pompey and Crassus. From then on, the end of the Republic was in sight. contubernium (pl. contubernia): a group of eight legionaries who shared a tent or barracks room and who cooked and ate together. denarius (pl. denarii): the staple coin of the Roman Republic. Made from silver, it was worth four sestertii, or ten asses (later sixteen). The less common gold aureus was worth twenty-five denarii. domus: a wealthy Roman's home. Typically it faced inwards, presenting a blank wall to the outside world. Built in a long, rectangular shape, the domus possessed two inner light sources, the atrium at the front and the colonnaded garden to the rear. These were separated by the large reception area of the tablinum. Around the atrium were bedrooms, offices, storerooms and shrines to a family's ancestors, while the chambers around the garden were often banqueting halls and further reception areas. editor (pl. editores): the sponsor of a munus, a gladiatorial contest. Once part of the obligatory rituals to honour the dead, such munera had by the late Republic become a way of winning favour with the Roman people. The lavishness of the spectacle reflected the depth of the editor's desire to please. Felicitas: the goddess of good luck and success. Fortuna: the goddess of luck and good fortune. Like all deities, she was notoriously fickle. fossae (sing. fossa): defensive ditches, which were dug out around all Roman camps, whether temporary or permanent. They varied in number, width and depth depending on the type of camp and the degree of danger to the legion. fugitivarius (pl. fugitivarii): slave-catchers, men who made a living from tracking down and capturing runaways. Gallicinium watch: the Romans divided night-time into eight watches, four before midnight, and four after it. The Gallicinium watch is the second of these latter four, so approximately 2 a.m. TO 4 a.m. gladius (pl. gladii): little information remains about the 'Spanish' sword of the Republican army, the gladius hispaniensis, with its waisted blade. I have therefore used the 'Pompeii' variation of the gladius as it is the shape most people are familiar with. This was a short – 420-500 mm (16.5-20 in) – straight-edged sword with a V-shaped point. About 42-55 mm (1.6-2.2 in) wide, it was an extremely well-balanced weapon ideal for both cutting and thrusting. The shaped hilt was made of bone and protected by a pommel and guard of wood. The gladius was worn on the right, except by centurions and other senior officers, who wore it on the left. It was actually quite easy to draw with the right hand, and was probably positioned like this to avoid entanglement with the scutum while being unsheathed. haruspex (pl. haruspices): a soothsayer. A man trained to divine in many ways, from the inspection of animal entrails to the shapes of clouds and the way birds fly. As the perceived source of blood, and therefore life itself, the liver was particularly valued for its divinatory possibilities. In addition, many natural phenomena – thunder, lightning, wind – could be used to interpret the present, past and future. The bronze liver mentioned in the book really exists; it was found in a field at Piacenza, Italy, in 1877. hora prima: Roman time was divided into two periods, that of daylight (twelve hours) and of night time (eight watches). The first hour of the day, hora prima, started at sunrise. Great inaccuracies were present in the Romans' methods of measuring time. The main instrument used was a sundial, which meant that the latitude of the location defined day length. Thus the time in Rome was quite different to Sicily, far to the south. In addition, varying day length throughout the year meant that daylight hours in the winter were shorter than in the summer. We must therefore assume that time was more elastic in ancient times. The Romans also devised the clepsydra, or water clock. By using a transparent water vessel with a regular intake, it was possible to mark the level of water for each daylight hour, and then to use it at night or during fog. Imperator: a Latin word which meant 'commander' in Republican times. Later it came to be one of the emperor's titles, and of course gave rise to the English word. insula (pl. insulae): high-rise (three-, four- or even five-storey) blocks of flats in which most Roman citizens lived. As early as 218 BC, Livy recorded the tale of an ox that escaped from the market and scaled the stairs of an insula before hurling itself to its death from the third floor. The ground level of each insula often comprised a taberna, or shop, which opened right on to the street via a large arched doorway. The shopkeeper and his family lived and slept in the room above. Built on top of this was floor after floor of cenaculae, the plebeians' flats. Cramped, poorly lit, heated only by braziers, and often dangerously constructed, the cenaculae had no running water or sanitation. Access to the flats was made via staircases built on the outside of the building. intervallum: the wide, flat area inside the walls of a Roman camp or fort. As well as serving to protect the barrack buildings from enemy missiles, it could when necessary allow the massing of troops before battle. Juno: sister and wife of Jupiter, she was the goddess of marriage and women. Jupiter: often referred to as Optimus Maximus – 'Greatest and Best'. Most powerful of the Roman gods, he was responsible for weather, especially storms. Jupiter was the brother as well as the husband of Juno. lanista (pl. lanistae): a gladiator trainer, often the owner of a ludus, a gladiator school. latifundium (pl. latifundia): a large estate, usually owned by Roman nobility, and which utilised large numbers of slaves as labour. Latifundia date back to the second century BC, when vast areas of land were confiscated from Italian peoples defeated by Rome, such as the Samnites. legate: the officer in command of a legion, and a man of senatorial rank. In the late Roman Republic, legates were still appointed by generals such as Caesar from the ranks of their family, friends and political allies. licium: linen loincloth worn by nobles. It is likely that all classes wore a variant of this; unlike the Greeks, the Romans did not believe in unnecessary public nudity. lictor (pl. lictores): a magistrates' enforcer. Only strongly built citizens could apply for this job. Lictores were essentially the bodyguards for the consuls, praetors and other senior Roman magistrates. Such officials were accompanied at all times in public by set numbers of lictores (the number depended on their rank). Each lictor carried a fasces, the symbol of justice: a bundle of rods enclosing an axe. Other duties included the arresting and punishment of wrongdoers. ludus (pl. ludi): a gladiator school. manica (pl. manicae): an arm guard used by gladiators. It was usually made of layered materials such as durable linen and leather, or metal. mantar: a Turkish word meaning 'mould'. I have taken advantage of its exotic sound to use it as a word for the penicillin powder that Tarquinius uses on Benignus. manumissio: during the Republic, the act of freeing a slave was actually quite complex. It was usually done in one of three ways: by claim to the praetor, during the sacrifices of the five yearly lustrum, or by a testamentary clause in a will. A slave could not be freed until at least the age of thirty and continued to owe formal duties to their former master after manumission. During the Empire, the process was made much more simple. It became possible to verbally grant manumission at a feast, using the guests as witnesses. Mars: the god of war. All spoils of war were consecrated to him, and no Roman commander would go on campaign without having visited the temple of Mars to ask for the god's protection and blessing. Minerva: the goddess of war and also of wisdom. Mithraeum (pl. mithraea): the underground temples built by devotees of Mithras. Examples can be found from Rome (there is one in the basement of a church just five minutes' walk from the Coliseum) to Hadrian's Wall (Carrawburgh, among others). Mithras: originally a Persian god, he was born on the winter solstice, in a cave. He wore a Phrygian blunt-peaked hat and was associated with the sun, hence the name Sol Invictus: 'Unconquered Sun'. With the help of various creatures, he sacrificed a bull, which gave rise to life on earth: a creation myth. The sharing of wine and bread as well as the shaking of hands were possibly initially Mithraic rituals. Unfortunately we know little about the religion, except that there were various levels of devotion, with rites of passage being required between them. A mosaic in a mithraeum at Ostia reveals fascinating snippets about the seven levels of initiate. With its tenets of courage, strength and endurance, Mithraicism was very popular among the Roman military, especially during the Empire. Latterly the secretive religion came into conflict with Christianity, and it was being actively suppressed by the fourth century ad. modius (pl. modii): an official Roman dry measure of approximately 8.6 l (just over 15 pts). To prevent malpractice, all weights and measures (wet and dry) were standardised. murmillo (pl. murmillones): one of the most familiar types of gladiator. The bronze, crested helmet was very distinctive, with a broad brim, a bulging face-plate and grillwork eyeholes. The crest was often fitted with groups of feathers, and may also have been fashioned in a fish shape. The murmillo wore a manica on the right arm and a greave on the left leg; like the legionary, he carried a heavy rectangular shield and was armed with a gladius. His only garments were the subligaria, an intricately folded linen undercloth, and the balteus, a wide, protective belt. In Republican times, the most common opponent for the murmillo was the secutor, although later on this became the retiarius. noxii (sing. noxius): were criminals convicted of the worst offences, prisoners of war, slaves, traitors or deserters. Their punishment was to be condemned to execution in the arena by the most extreme of methods. These included crucifixion, being pitted against wild beasts, or burned to death. To our modern sensibilities, these methods seem monstrous, but in the Romans' minds, the punishment had to fit the crime. optio (pl. optiones): the officer who ranked immediately below a centurion; the second-in-command of a century. Orcus: the god of the underworld. Also known as Pluto or Hades, he was believed to be Jupiter's brother, and was greatly feared. pali (sing. palus): 1.82-m (6-ft) wooden posts buried in the ground. Trainee gladiators and legionaries were taught swordsmanship by aiming blows at them. papaverum: the drug morphine. Made from the flowers of the opium plant, its use has been documented from at least 1000 BC. Roman doctors used it to allow them to perform prolonged operations on patients. peltast: a light infantryman of Greek and Anatolian origin. Apart from a shield, they fought unarmoured and, depending on their nationality, carried rhomphaiai or javelins and sometimes spears or knives. Their primary use was as skirmishers. phalera (pl. phalerae): a sculpted disc-like decoration for bravery which was worn on a chest harness, over a Roman soldier's armour. Phalerae were commonly made of bronze, but could be made of more precious metals as well. Torques, arm rings and bracelets were also awarded. pilum (pl. pila): the Roman javelin. It consisted of a wooden shaft approximately 1.2 m (4 ft) long, joined to a thin iron shank approximately 0.6 m (2 ft) long, and was topped by a small pyramidal point. The javelin was heavy and, when launched, all of its weight was concentrated behind the head, giving it tremendous penetrative force. It could strike through a shield to injure the man carrying it, or lodge in the shield, making it impossible for the man to continue using it. The range of the pilum was about 30 m (100 ft), although the effective range was probably about half this distance. Priapus: the god of gardens and fields, a symbol of fertility. Often pictured with a huge erect penis. primus pilus: the senior centurion of the whole legion, and possibly – probably – the senior centurion of the first cohort. A position of immense importance, it would have been held by a veteran soldier, typically in his forties or fifties. On retiring, the primus pilus was entitled to admission to the equestrian class. principia: the headquarters of a legion, to be found on the Via Praetoria. This was the beating heart of the legion in a marching camp or fort; it was where all the administration was carried out and where the unit's standards, in particular the Aquila, or eagle, were kept. Its massive entrance opened on to a colonnaded and paved courtyard which was bordered on each side by offices. Behind this was a huge forehall with a high roof, which contained statues, the shrine for the standards, a vault for the legion's pay and possibly more offices. It is likely that parades took place here, and that senior officers addressed their men in the hall. pugio: a dagger. Some Roman soldiers carried these, an extra weapon. They were probably as useful in daily life (for eating and preparing food, etc.) as when on campaign. retiarius (pl. retiarii): the fisherman, or net and trident fighter, named after the rete, or net. Also an easily recognisable class of gladiator, the retiarius merely wore a subligaria. His only protection consisted of the galerus, a metal shoulder-guard, which was attached to the top edge of a manica on his left arm. His weapons were the weighted net, a trident and a dagger. With less equipment to weigh him down, the retiarius was far more mobile than many other gladiators and, lacking a helmet, was also instantly recognisable. This may have accounted for the low status of this class of fighter. rhomphaia (pl. rhomphaiai): essentially a polearm. This fearsome weapon had a straight or slightly curved single cutting edge attached to a pole which was considerably longer than the blade. While primarily used by the Thracians, a variant called the falx was also used by the Dacians. The design of both gave tremendous cutting force. After encountering the falx in Dacia, the Romans' response was to make the only known documented change to their armour in response to an enemy's weapon, that of strengthening their helmets with reinforcing bars. rudis: the wooden gladius which symbolised the freedom that could be granted to a gladiator who pleased a sponsor sufficiently, or who had earned enough victories in the arena to qualify for it. Not all gladiators were condemned to die in combat: far from it. Prisoners of war and criminals usually were, but slaves who had committed a crime were granted the rudis if they survived for three years as a gladiator. After a further two years, they could be set free. scutum (pl. scuta): an elongated oval Roman army shield, about 1.2 m (4 ft) tall and 0.75 m (2 ft 6 in) wide. It was made from two layers of wood, the pieces laid at right angles to each other; it was then covered with linen or canvas, and leather. The scutum was heavy, weighing between 6 and 10 kg (13-22 lb). A large metal boss decorated its centre, with the horizontal grip placed behind this. Decorative designs were often painted on the front, and a leather cover was used to protect the shield when not in use, e.g. while marching. secutor (pl. secutores): the pursuer, or hunter class of gladiator. Also called the contraretiarius, the secutor fought the fisherman, the retiarius. Virtually the only difference between the secutor and the murmillo was the smooth-surfaced helmet, which was without a brim and had a small, plain crest, probably to make it more difficult for the retiarius' net to catch and hold. Unlike other gladiators' helmets, the secutor's had small eyeholes, making it very difficult to see. This was possibly to reduce the chances of the heavily armoured fighter quickly overcoming the retiarius. sestertius (pl. sestertii): a silver coin, it was worth four asses; or a quarter of a denarius; or one hundredth of an aureus. Its name, 'two units and a half third one', comes from its original value, two and a half asses. By the time of the late Roman Republic, its use was becoming more common. signifer (pl. signiferi): a standard-bearer and junior officer. This was a position of high esteem, with one for every century in a legion. Not much definite information survives about the uniform worn by signiferi at this time. Following later examples, I have made the signifer wear scale armour and an animal skin over his helmet, and carry a small, round shield rather than a scutum. His signum, or standard, consisted of a wooden pole bearing a raised hand, or a spear tip surrounded by palm leaves. Below this was a crossbar from which hung metal decorations, or a piece of coloured cloth. The standard's shaft was decorated with discs, half-moons, ships' prows and crowns, which were records of the unit's achievements and may have distinguished one century from another. stade (pl. stadia): a Greek word. It was the distance of the original foot race in the ancient Olympic games of 776 BC, and was approximately 192 m (630 ft) in length. The word stadium derives from it. stola: a long, loose tunic, with or without sleeves, worn by married women. Those who were unmarried wore other types of tunic, but to simplify things, I have mentioned only one garment, worn by all. tablinum: the office or reception area beyond the atrium. The tablinum usually opened on to an enclosed colonnaded garden. tesserarius: one of the junior officers in a century, whose duties included commanding the guard. The name originates from the tessera tablet on which was written the password for the day. testudo: the famous Roman square formation, formed by legionaries in the middle raising their scuta over their heads while those at the sides formed a shield wall. The testudo, or tortoise, was used to resist missile attack or to protect soldiers while they undermined the walls of towns under siege. The formation's strength was reputedly tested during military training by driving a cart pulled by mules over the top of it. Thracian: like most gladiators, this class had its origins with one of Rome's enemies – Thrace (modern-day Bulgaria). Armed with a small square shield with a convex surface, this fighter wore greaves on both legs and, occasionally, fasciae – protectors on the thighs. The right arm was covered by a manica. A Hellenistic-type helmet was worn, with a broad curving brim and cheek guards. thureophoros (pl. thureophoroi): an infantryman very similar to the peltast. The thurephoroi succeeded the peltasts as one of the most common type of mercenary in the eastern Mediterranean from the third century BC onwards. Grave paintings for thureophoroi have been found in Greece, Anatolia, Bithynia and Egypt. Carrying oval or rectangular shields rather than round ones, they wore Macedonian-style helmets and a variety of coloured tunics, and were armed with a long spear, javelins and a sword. tribune: senior staff officer within a legion; also one of ten political positions in Rome, where they served as 'tribunes of the people', defending the rights of the plebeians. The tribunes could also veto measures taken by the Senate or consuls, except in times of war. To assault a tribune was a crime of the highest order. trierarch: the captain of a trireme. Originally a Greek rank, the term persisted in the Roman navy. triplex acies: the standard deployment of a legion for battle. Three lines were formed some distance apart, with four cohorts in the front line and three in the middle and rear lines. The gaps between the cohorts and between the lines themselves are unclear, but the legionaries would have been accustomed to different variations, and to changing these quickly when ordered. trireme: the classic Roman warship, which was powered by a single sail and three banks of oars. Each oar was rowed by one man, who was freeborn, not a slave. Exceptionally manoeuvrable, and capable of up to 8 knots under sail or for short bursts when rowed, the trireme also had a bronze ram at the prow. This was used to damage or even sink enemy ships. Small catapults were also mounted on the deck. Each trireme was crewed by around 30 men and had approximately 200 rowers; it also carried up to 60 marines (in a reduced century), giving it a very large crew in proportion to its size. This limited the triremes' range, so they were mainly used as troop transports and to protect coastlines. valetudinarium: the hospital in a legionary fort. These were usually rectangular buildings with a central courtyard. They contained up to 64 wards, each similar to the rooms in the legionary barracks which held a contubernium of soldiers. velarium: a cloth awning positioned over the seats of the rich at the arena. It protected them from the worst of the sun's heat and allowed Roman women to remain fair-skinned, a most important quality. venatores (sing. venator): a trained beast-fighter. They hunted animals like antelope, wild goats and giraffe, and more dangerous ones such as lions, tigers, bears and elephants. Typically the lowest class of gladiator, the venatores provided the warm-up acts in the morning, before the main attraction of man-to-man combats later in the day. Venus: the Roman goddess of motherhood and domesticity. vexillum (pl. vexilla): a distinctive, usually red, flag which was used to denote the commander's position in camp or in battle. Vexilla were also used by detachments serving away from their units. vilicus: slave foreman or farm manager. Commonly a slave, the vilicus was sometimes a paid worker, whose job it was to make sure that the returns on a farm were as large as possible. This was most commonly done by treating the slaves brutally.