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Appendix A

SYNTACTIC ENVIRONMENTS FOR IDENTIFYING NATURAL LANGUAGE PRESUPPOSITIONS IN ENGLISH

Our purpose in presenting the material in this appendix is to indicate the scope and complexity of the natural language phenomenon of presuppositions. In addition, by listing some of the more common syntactic environments in which presuppositions occur, we provide an opportunity to practice for those students who are interested in sharpening their intuitions in recognizing presuppositions. The list of syntactic environments is not exhaustive, and we will not attempt to present any of the theories which have been proposed by different linguists, logicians, semanticists, or philosophers to account for presuppositions. Rather, our objective is more practical.

At the present time, presuppositions are a major focus of study for a number of linguists, especially linguists who consider themselves Generative Semanticists. In compiling this list of syntactic environments, we have borrowed heavily from the work of Lauri Kartunnen. See the Bibliography for sources.

1. Simple Presuppositions.

These are syntactic environments in which the existence of some entity is required for the sentence to make sense (to be either true or false).

a. Proper Names.

(George Smith left the party early.) -> (There exists someone named George Smith.) where -> means presupposes.

b. Pronouns: her, him, they.

(I saw him leave.) -> (There exists some male [i.e., him].)

c. Definite Descriptions.

(I liked the woman with the silver earrings.) -> (There exists a woman with silver

earrings.)

d. Generic Noun Phrases.

Noun arguments standing for a whole class. (If wombats have no trees in which to climb, they are sad.) -> (There are wombats.)

e. Some Quantifiers: all, each, every, some, many, few, none.

(If some of the dragons show up, I'm leaving.) -> (There are dragons.)

2. Complex Presuppositions.

Cases in which more than the simple existence of an element is presupposed,

a. Relative Clauses.

Complex noun arguments, with a noun followed by a phrase beginning with who, which, or that.

(Several of the women who had spoken to you left the shop.) -> (Several women had spoken to you.)

b. Subordinate Clauses of Time.

Classes identified by the cue words before, after, during, as, since, prior, when, while.

(If the judge was home when I stopped by her house, she didn't answer her door.) -> (I stopped by the judge's house.)

c. Cleft Sentence.

Sentences beginning with It was\is noun argument.

(It was the extra pressure which shattered the window.) -> (Something shattered the window.)

d. Pseudo-Cleft Sentences.

(Identified by the form What [Sentence] is [sentence].

(What Sharon hopes to do is to become well liked.) -> (Sharon hopes to do something.)